Organisational Behavior Notes Essay

Definition * The study of human behaviour, attitudes and performance within organisational setting to improve performance and differences. * Frameworks of theories, methods and principles from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, political * The organisational Iceberg The study of organisational behaviour embraces, therefore an understanding of * The nature and purpose of the organisation * The human element and behaviour of people * Business strategy, organisational processes and the execution of work * The process of management as an integrating and co-ordinating activity * Social responsibilities and business ethics * The external environment of which the organisation is part of and * The need for organisation success and survival. The Pyschological Contract * The PC is not a formal written document that is referred to but a people organisation relationship where mutual expectations and satisfaction of needs are implied. * Important to enhance the level of trust and teamwork. * Human capital to be seen as a responsibility and a resources to be added to * Two observations in human behaviour at work * Peter Principle * Parkinson’s law ../2 The pyschological contract: possible examples of individual and organisational expectations Individual’s expectations of the organisation * Provide safe and hygienic working conditions. * Make every reasonable effort to provide job security. * Attempt to provide challenging and satisfying jobs, and reduce alienating aspects of work. * Adopy equitable human resource management policicies and procedures. * Respect the role of trade union officials and staff representatives. * Consult fully with staff and allow genuine participation in decisions which affect them. * Implement best practice in equal opportunity policies and precedures. * Reward all staff fairly according to their contribution and performance. * Provide reasonable opportunities for personal development and career progression. * Treat members of staff wit respect. * Demonstrate an understanding and considerate attitude towards personal problems of staff. Organisation’s Expectations of the Individual * Uphold the ideology of the organisation and the corporate image. * Work diligently in pursuit of organisational objectives. * Adhere to the rules, policicies and procedures of the organisation. * Respect the reasonable authority of senior members of staff. * Not to take advantage of goodwill shown by the management. * Be responsive to the leadership influence. * Demonstrate loyalty, respect confidentiality and not betray positions of trust. * Maintain harmonious relationships with work colleagues. * Not to abuse organisational facilities such as email or internet access. * Observe reasonable and acceptable standards of dress and appearance. * Show respect and consolidation to customers and suppliers. A pyshcological contract is not only measured in monetary value or in exchange of goods or services, it is in essence the exchange or sharing beliefs and values, expectations and satisfactions. Mutuality is the base principle of the pyshcological contract and consensus or mutual understanding is the basis of mutuality. Ideally therefore self-interest should be balanced with common interest in a win-win arrangement. In the past this unspoken contract might have implied that employees could expect job security and adequate rewards from their employer in exchange for hard work and loyalty. Today’s pyshological contract may be different, in line with a changed working environment that includes factors such as increased rationalism, technological changes, and management aproaches such as outsourcing. The new pyschological contract may revolve more around an employer’s willingness to assist you in developing your skills to order to maintain your marketability. The Peter Principle This is concerned with the study of occupational incompetence and the study of hierarchies. In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to their level of incompetence. Employees competence in their postion are promoted and competence is each new position qualifies for promotion to the next highest posotion until a position of incompetence is reached. The principle is based on perceived incompetence in all levels of every hierarchy political, legal, educational and industrial and ways in whcih employees move upwards through a hierarchy and what happens to them after promotion. Peter suggests tow main means by which a person can effect their promotion rate. â€Å"Pull and push†. * Pull is an employee’s relationship – by blood, marriage and acqaintance – with a person above the employee in the hierarchy. * Push is sometimes manifested by an abnormal interest in study, vocational training and self-improvement. In small hierarchies push may have a marginal effect in accelerating promotion; in larger hierarchies the effect is minimal. Pull is therefore, likely to be more effective than Push. Parkinson’s Law A major feature of PL is that of the rising pyramid, that is â€Å"Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion. There is little, if any, relationship between the quantity of work to be done and the number of staff doing it. Underlying this tendency are two statements; * An official wants to multiply subordinates, not rivals * Officials make work for each other What is driving leaders & organisations behaviour? * The continuous importance that consumers base on value of product and service. * The diverse workforce is also an important factor that drives organisational behaviour. * Consumers expect that organisation understands their needs and produces top quality products at best price possible. These demands place leaders in a challenged situation by domestic and global markets and competition. What are organisational factors? * Organisational factors may be identified as the organisational environment, structure & design * Individual characteristics, group behaviour * Overall decision making * The change processes adopted by the organisation The fast momentum in any industry highlights the importance of the leader to align the human resources with the organisational factors. Framing the Organisational behaviour Organisational behaviour may be studied under the following main contributors * The environment * The individual in the organisation * Group behaviour and interpersonal influence * Organisational process Organisational environment is the external and internal environment, the legal and political constraints, economic, technological changes and development all have an impact on the decisions that are taken by the management. The individual is the foundation of the organisation performance. This should therefore highlight the importance of managing individual behaviour at any level of the organisation. There are 3 important influences that mould the individual behaviour. 1. Individual characteristics 2. Individual motivation 3. Rewards Group behaviour Groups may form either intentionally by managerial decisions or form out of individual efforts. * Formal groups are groups that were intentionally created by managerial decisions * Informal groups are groups that form out of common interests and friendships that may have a negative or positive effect and therefore affect the organisation or individual performance. * Organisational processes are the communication, the decision making and the leadership elements that the organisation fosters as part of its culture and which in turn have an impact on the general performance of the individual and collective behaviour. Factors of organisation process Communication process is the ability of management to receive, transmit and act on information. The information integrates the internal activities with the external demand and information also integrates internally the activities of the organisation. Decision making process Decisions by managers have a direct impact on the employees well being, the organisation’s resources and the design and implementation of rules in a organisation. This should illustrate the importance of managers to communicate, assess and analyse the feedback of decisions and practises in the organisation. Leadership process Leaders in an organisation may be managers and non- managers. The manager may not always be the leader, yet leadership skills contribute in attaining the set goals. Some people believe that leadership styles should vary according to the situation, other believe that one style of leadership is effective in most situations. Importance of effectiveness * Surviving in the environment * Organisation ages- it forms, develops, matures and declines Importance of the Dimension of Time Quality, productivity, efficiency, satisfaction, adaptiveness and development are 6 general categories of effectiveness criteria. Each of the categories have a time base, short run criteria – 1 year, intermediate 5 years, long run are those for which the indefinite future is applicable. Personality Individual difference and work behaviour * Individual differences have a direct effect on behaviour because peole who perceive things differently behave differently. * Individual differences shape organisaitional behaviour and consequently, individual and organisaitional success. What is the ASA framework? This is the attraction- selection-attrition to careers and organisations. * Prospective employees are attracted to careers and organisations. * Organisations elect employees on the basis of the needs of the organisation. * Attrition occurs when individuals discover that they do not belong to the organisation. Studying individual differences at the work place is important since not addressing differences among employees may hinder from achieving organisation and personal goals. Understanding work behaviour Inorder to fully understand where individual differences arise the personal environment also needs to be given attention, weight and considered. Heredity factors are also important. An effective management must; * Observe and recognise the dufferences and * Study relationship between variables that influences individual behaviour. For discussion * What are the variables at work? * Give examples of work behaviour. Can you think of how these may be fostered on connected? The following variables impact employee productivity, creativity and performance extensively; * Heredity factors and diversity * Abilities and skills * Attitudes Heredity factors Gender, race and ethnic background are all heredity factors, mental and moral differences are also influenced by genetic inheritance and such factors mould each individual which in turn have a direct effect at work behaviour. 1.a Diversity * Diversity refers to those attributes that make people different from another. Primary dimensions of diversity include age, ethicity, gender, pyshical attributes, race and sexual orientation. When an employee is harassed as a resukt of diversity, due to isolation they become less enthusiastic in their job. * Managing diversity therefore ensures that employees become top level contributors especially in today’s †¦ Abilities and Skills * Ability is a pesson’s talent to perform a mental or pyshical task. * Skill is a learned talent that a person has acquired to perform a task. * Ability tends to be stable over time while skill tends to change according to training and experience. One needs ability to be a sales executive (appearance and manners are important) yet one may attain skills with years of experience in sales. * Mental ability therefore refers to the level of intelligence including comprehension, indicative or deictive reasoning, body language, associative memory etc. * Tacit knowledge is the work related to practical know how of the employees acquired eitehr through observation or direct experience on the job. Emotional intelligence – When you probe people to get to know them more * It is important that managers assess and attest abilities and skills snice no amount of leadership and motivation can make up for such deficiencies- job analysis therefore becomes important. * Job analysis is the process of defining and studying a job interms of tasks and behaviour and specifying responsibilities, education and training needes to perform a job – therefore removes guess work when recruiting. Attitudes Attitudes are deteriments of behaviour because they are linked with perception, personaility, fdeelings, etc therfore has a certain amount of importance to the managers. Attitudes are * Learned * Define one’s predeposition towards a given aspect or situation * Provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identifications with other * Attitudes are close to the core of personaility * Some attitudes are persistent and enduring while others are liable to change over time. Changing attitudes at the workplace How can a manager change attitudes of his employees? The process depends on three main factors / contributors 1. The Communicator 2. The Message 3. The Situation The Communicator * If the communicator is trusted and the employees perceive the manager as having prestige, they are more likely to change their attitudes. Employees change because they try to identify with a liked communicator and tend to adopt attitudes and behaviour of the liked individual. * A manager with a low prestige is not show respect / trust by peers and superiors – therefore more difficult to change attitudes of his team. The Message * Intentional and unintentional messages are delivered through verbal and no nverbal communication by managers. * The message delivered to employees has to be clear, understandable and convincing. * Developing persuasive verbal and non verbal communication skills is essential to managers. The Situation * The managers success in delivering a change in attitude also depends on the situation when the message is being delivered. * Distraction and pleasant surroundings are two factors that facilitate change in attitude (perks, performance allowance, training opportunities†¦) Is job satisfaction an attitude? Job satisfaction results from the perception of the job itself and the degree which there is a good fit between the individual and the organisation Factors to consider * Pay – not just the pay but the perceived fairness. * The work itself – are job tasks considered interesting? Do they provide opportunities for learning and accepting further / higher responsibilities? * Supervision – technical competence and interpersonal skills of the immediate boss. * Co workers – extent to which co workers are friendly, competent and supportive. Advancement opportunities – availability of opportunities Work conditions – the physical work environment is comfortable and supportive of productivity. Job security – it is reasonable expectation that one’s position is secure and contured employment within the organisation. Job relation in relation to Job performance on Effectiveness Are these 2 factors related or dependant on each other? * Attempts by management to satisfy employees may not mean higher performance while high performance may not mean that the employers are satisfied at work. * Discuss the ripple effects of rewards, warnings, absenteeism, fair promotion etc. That these have on job performance in general. Effect on OC Personality Personality refers to a relatively stable set of feelings and behaviour that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors. * The manager attempting to understand his employees must give attention to the major forces that shape personality. * Cultural forces, heredity, family, relationship and social class are all factors that mould personality. How? * Culture – society, institutes various pattern behaviour with the result that members of a culture have common personality characteristics. * Heredity – varies from personality to another but are not constant since it is associated with values or ideals (temperament) * Family relationships – the experience one has with his parents, grandmothers, other family members / life experiences. * Social class – influences one’s self perception, perception of others, of work, of authority of money factor. * Personality is therefore a product (a number of forces that together have attributed to shape the unique individual). Personality is interrelated with perception, attitudes, learning and motivation – therefore analysis behaviour is incomplete unless personality is considered. Personality and Behaviour in Organisations The big five Personality Dimensions is key in understanding organisational behaviour. 1. Extroversion (Open minded, sociable, etc) 2. Emotional (Stability) 3. Agreeableness (More open to people, challenges and change) 4. Conscientousness (to understand your people’s attraction) Other three major factors are: Locus of control This relates to the extent to which employees believe that their behaviour will influence what happens to them. (Differing personalities of Internals & Externals). Self efficacy Personal beliefs of competencies and abilities. This has an impact on Org behaviour and decisions like selection, training programmes and goal setting and performance. Creativity This is a personality trait that requires deviation from the normal thinking to produce new and useful ideas. (Think in an unconventional way). While a personality factor of the individual organisations play an important role to develop creativity at work by giving opportunities and freedom to think and come forward with new ideas. Reward winning ideas and discuss failures positively to nourish creativity all round. The Importance of Culture National Culture is the sum total of the beliefs, rituals, rules, customs, artefacts and institution that characterise the population. How organisational transactions are conducted is affected by nation’s culture and its subcultures. Values, customs and rituals of cultures do not simply appear. They are revolutionary and are influenced by politics, religion, language and cultural aspects. Managing in the 21st century For effective management understanding different cultures and various organisational cultures is important in the 21st century. ../9 ../9 Adaptation to new environment is becoming a common occurrence and although adaptation from one origin to another is always difficult, it can be better understood by learning about organisational culture. Organisational Culture Organisational culture is the shared values, norms, beliefs and norms which influence the way employees think, feel and act towards others inside and outside the organisation. OC gives unique identity to an organisation Although culture cannot be seen, it can be sensed and felt through a person’s attitudes, emotions and perceptions. â€Å"The way we do things around here† Deal and Kennedy 1982 â€Å"The collective programming of the mind†, Geert Hofstede 2001. Hostede identified four dimensions of culture: power distance, uncenrtainty, avoidance, individualism and masculinity. Power distance is essentially used to categorise levels of inequity in organisations which Hofstede claims will depend upon managment style, willingness of subordinates to diasgree with superiors, and the educational level and status accruing to particular roles. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members of a society feel threatened by unusual situations. High uncertainty avoidance is said to be characteristic in France, Spain, Germany and many Latin American societies. Individualism describes the relatively individualistic or collectivisit ethic evident in that particular society. The USA, France and Spain display high individualism. Masculinity refers to a continuum between masculine charactertistics such as assertiveness and competitiveness, and feminine traits such as caring, a stress upon the quality of life and concern with the environment. Can organisational culture be created by management? * Ann Cunliffe (2008) states that OC is important for 4 reasons *Slaps the image that the public has as an organisation * Influences organisational performance * Provide direction to the company * Help to attract and retain motivated staff Creating the desired OC may be difficult since imposing a particular culture may not be met with resistance. Why? Is disparity between what the management states as values and the reality with the employee an issue? What organisational factors may be attributed to the development of a desired OC? Communication is an organisational factor that is an important factor is developing and fostering an OC Why? Discuss with example? Communicating top down only leaves management out of touch from the real situation and may lead to a gap in culture that management wants to create another culture that actually develops. Uncover the levels of cultures Artefacts – Visible organisational structures and processes (had to decipher). Annual report, newsletter, furnishings are examples of artefacts. Espoused Values – Strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justifications). Assumptions that tell individuals how to perceive, think and feel about work, human relationships and performance of colleagues. Basic underlying assumptions – Unconscious taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings (ultimate sources of values and actions). Summary with examples of Schein’s three levels of culture * Surface manifestation of culture – most accessible forms which are visible and audible behaviour patterns and objects (observable culture, send a message) * Organisational values – the accumulated beliefs held about how work hold be done and situations dealt with that guide employee behaviour ( be honest, be creative, work hard) * Basic assumption – invisible perceptions, taken for granted understandings, held by individual with an organisation concerning behaviour, the nature of reality and its relationship to its environment (stability, excellence, quality and responsibility). Where does OC come from? Values are the basic element that distinguishes one organisation from the other. Changing organisation structure and its process will mean a change in values and therefore a change in culture. Why? Discuss the difference on a change from tall hierarchy to a change in flat hierarchy.

A Woman’s Place

â€Å"A woman's place is in the home. † This is a very old saying, and has today I think come to mean something very specific. When people use this expression today, it is usually in ridicule of someone else, and suggesting that they have very old-fashioned and reprehensible beliefs. The notion is that people who actually believe that the saying is true, believe that all women should be forced to stay in their homes, and not go out to work, or have careers, and that they should busy and content themselves with tidying up and decorating the home, to make it a pleasant place to be for their husbands who will appreciate this.On top of this, they must do the cooking and washing. If this is what the saying means, then I disagree with it. The saying refers to a very large and complicated topic: that of people's roles in society, and if I were forced to state that I either agreed or disagreed with the statement, then whichever answer I gave would be a simplification so great that it would be untrue. However, I may surprise you by stating that I am more in agreement with the statement than against it. The standard modern belief seems to be that the saying is wrong. Modern people also seem to believe that those who agree with the saying have old-fashioned views.Actually, I think that there is a confusion between modernity and older ways on this issue. The notion that a woman must stay at home and have no occupation, and instead make a nice nest is a modern one, not an old one. Before the industrial revolution, and right back to the start of farming, the home was not as it is now. There were no factories. Clothing for everyone was made in homes. There were no machines for spinning yarn, no automatic looms, no huge workplaces employing hundreds of people dyeing and sewing cloth. Instead, there was what we now call â€Å"cottage industry†.A region's cheeses were made in the homes of the locals. A woman who was good at making cheese or sewing could earn money this way, and she would work at home. There was no divide between the home and work. There were no office blocks, people did not commute, and no one was stopping women from working by confining them to their homes. Similarly, the modern home, in which a couple might live, is a modern thing. Homes until very recently were places where many people lived. Rich people had servants, and poor people had extended families, lodgers, and took on the task of looking after each others' children.Homes were not lonely prisons as they can be for the modern housewife. The idea that the home is a nice place to stay in and be proud of, and spend money on, is also quite modern, and of great convenience to the various DIY chains around today. Some great houses of the very wealthy were show-pieces, and used for entertaining, but for the common man, the house was a place where the roof kept his bed and belongings dry, and the floor was made of earth, and one room was a pig pen, and another was for weavi ng. My feeling is that people should act in whatever way is most likely to make them happy.Coercion tends to prevent happiness, and freedom tends to promote it. I do not think that a woman's place should be forced on her, I think that women should be free. I also think that if they were truly free to pick the path that would for them lead to the greatest contentment, that many more of them would end up not going out to work. The housing situation in modern Britain strikes me as inconvenient for the fostering of happiness. Whereas once a man could with a simple job support himself and his wife and family in a home, today most couples find that both of them have to work full time to afford a decent house.How can this be a good thing? Do women go out to work at the check-out counter of a supermarket because they love it? No, I suggest that they do this because they think that they need the money. Would it not be better that they did not have to do this? If they were free, would they no t prefer something else? House prices rise and fall dramatically. In recent times in Britain, they have risen very sharply. They have been subject to a inflationary force peculiar to themselves.In a given area, there are only so many houses. If everyone buys a house there for ?10,000, and each home is paid for by one person's wages, then perhaps this  situation could remain stable, or just follow the general pattern for inflation. But if later a couple, both of whom are working, buys one house for ?12,000, then the next person in the area selling his house will know that it is possible to get ?12,000 for it, and so will instruct his estate agent to get this amount for him. Soon, all the houses become â€Å"worth† ?12,000, and the cycle repeats, with the prices going ever upward until after a while the only way to afford a house there is to pay for it with the wages of two jobs, and all the women have to work. Are the people of that area now richer? Are they happier?Some of them might be, but for most the situation is that they do not have much or any more spending money, but instead money tied up in the same homes as before that today cost more, and now the women are all working, which makes everything difficult. Very few of the women will work at home, so the house will be empty most of the time. The thing itself that all this is for – the house – gets enjoyed less not more. Childcare becomes a huge problem.Many women will find themselves chasing their tails, trying to earn more so that they can afford to pay for child carers that they need because they are at work trying to get enough  money to pay for childcare. People who argue against a woman's place being in the home are often well-educated people who take great interest in their careers. It should be remembered though that most women are not highly career-oriented, educated and intelligent. Working the till at a supermarket is not a career, it is a job. Whereas an educated woman might get great fulfilment from working as a doctor in a hospital, I do doubt that this is why many women choose to scan in tins of baked beans for a living. Half of births are male. This is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future.There are areas in Britain where the traditional male jobs have disappeared. Mines and steel works have closed, the army is now very small, and machines have taken over the jobs of many men in what few shipyards and car factories are left. Nevertheless, men still seek these sorts of job. Most new jobs are taken up by women. In many places, this leads to a great amount of male unemployment, and a discontented underclass of unemployed males is not good for a stable and peaceful society. Would it not be better to have those men doing something useful that gave them self-respect and purpose?Men have evolved instincts that make them do things for women. They may not always realise that what they do is for women. Quite often, they may feel that the reverse is true. Men drive recklessly. This is not good for society. Evolution has favoured men who take risks and show off, however, because in the past these men passed on the most genes. Today, selfish men drive too fast and endanger us all, but the drive in them that makes them do this comes from the fact that women of the distant past were impressed by skill and daring. Today, men get a kick out of being able to support women.They also get a hefty kick in the confidence and self respect if they cannot do this. It is commonly remarked that men do not like to marry women who earn more than they do. Society at large does not respect the kept-man. Given that this stems from deeprooted instinct, it is incredibly unlikely that this will change in the near future. We could try and educate people to respect kept-men, and kept-men to be happy being kept, but this would be going against the grain of human nature. Surely it is much better to go with the grain of human nature.This way, rather tha n having a population that can tolerate the situation, you will have a population that will be happy. This may strike you as a ridiculous opinion, and an entirely subjective conclusion, but I must point out that there is a fundamental difference between the two states of being. In one, you have people who know that they ought to believe a certain thing because they have been told to, and who perhaps (though probably imperfectly) go along with this. With the other, you have a population that gets an endorphin rush from what it does.In our ancestral past, people did not have to fill in forms. They did have to copulate in order to pass on genes. Consequently, we did not evolve to get a natural mental high from form-filling, but we did evolve to get something of a pleasant sensation from copulation. Today, we have to fill in forms, but no amount of education can make formfilling fun, because our brains simply do not have a mechanism for releasing pleasure chemicals for form-filling. Our brains do, however, have very strongly hard-wired mechanism for rewarding sex.By the same logic you cannot educate men to be happy about being kept or women to be happy working in an office while a stranger looks after her kids. You can, of course, find exceptions. Somewhere, there is a happy kept-man, and a woman for whom photocopying forms is a continuous source of joy. I am writing about the great mass of people. One thing about the saying â€Å"a woman's place is in the home† is that people find it belittling. To them it suggests that women are lesser things, not clever enough to do anything more than dust and cook. There is nothing in the statement that says this.If another saying were â€Å"a man's place is in the army†, or â€Å"a man's place is in the factory†, would people similarly think this an insult to the intelligence of men? I think not. There is nothing innate to the saying â€Å"a woman's place is in the home† that means that women are s tupid. That association comes from the history of ideas – from old arguments that have been used to suggest that women are inferior. Let us forget them. An awful lot of work has been done on human intelligence, and one consistent result is that the average man and average woman are of equal overall intelligence.Success these days is rated in male terms, it seems. To become high rank in an organisation is high status and good, and to be applauded. To earn lots of money is impressive too. To be high-profile, assertive, and otherwise masculine receives praise and to be domestic and content is seen to be contrary to this. It is a great shame that women seem to see success in the same terms. To be self-respecting, they now are made to feel that they have to succeed as men. That they usually find that they are not as good as men at being male they often put down to prejudice and unfairness in society.If the only way they can succeed is at being male, and they are competing against men, then they will always lose. Similarly, men competing in a female world will always lose. Indeed, society is biased that way too, as any man who has tried to get custody of his children after a divorce will tell you. If women will always lose, then they are likely to end up discontent. Surely it would be better to go with the grain of human nature, and offer them a feminine form of success. We live in a money-driven economy. To eat, most people have to buy food from shops. Mothers need money to raise children.For the typical woman, there are two ways of getting it: from a man, or by earning it herself. Clearly the better of the two is from a man. You may be shocked to read this, but I really do mean it. If a woman can delegate the task of getting money to someone else, and by this method end up with the money she needs, then this is surely easier and better for her than having to manage the simultaneous tasks of bringing up children and working. People may admire working mothers , and say, â€Å"how ever do you manage it? † but I do not believe that these women chose their way of life for its ease and convenience.So, it is better for the mother and her children to get the money from a man. Men might prefer to spend all their money on themselves, but this does not mean that it is better that they do. Men do get a reward in self-esteem from supporting their own children, and surely it is good for a society that they do. It seems that it is better for women, for children, for men, and for society that women get financial support from men. This is all very well, but unfortunately, life is enormously more complicated than this may suggest. Marriages break down very often.One major reason that divorce is on the increase, is that women are more financially independent, and can afford to divorce. In a modern rich world, their children will not starve. After divorce, the typical woman is considerably poorer, and the typical man richer, but still women divorce their husbands. A society that forces women to stay in marriages they hate would be sub-optimal, but so too surely is a society in which marriage is close to meaningless. It could be that we have fallen into a post-industrial trap. The invention of farming was a bit like a trap.Before farming, people did not own land, and wandered around hunting and gathering. The population was low and scattered and free. Once farming started, people had to stay put to farm their land, and to guard it from pests and thieves. They had to regard the land they farmed as their own. Farming increases the number of people who can live in a given area of land, and after not many generations, it was impossible to go back to hunting and gathering, because the population was then too large to support that way, and the rest of the land was beingfarmed by people who didn't take kindly to poachers. The result was that people who were once free were now trapped in the backbreaking world of farming. Perhaps our economy will make it impossible for houses to be affordable for typical single wage earners. If enough people stay together for long enough to pay enough joint mortgages, then house prices can stay inflated. Governments could not simply intervene and lower the price of housing. Attempts to force people to sell things for less than they could get for them always fail one way or another.Something is only ever worth what someone else is prepared to pay for it. It could be that men have ended up in a world where male virtues are criticised in all but the successful few, and in which their male instincts cause them to pursue lives that will bring them little pleasure. Meanwhile women cannot feel respected without independence, but cannot get enough money without dependence on a man who might be gone tomorrow, and so still they have to go out and get jobs.

A Job Costing System Accumulates Economics Essay

A Job Costing System Accumulates Economics Essay Chapter 14 A job-costing system accumulates and analyzes costs separately for each product or small batches of products. Examples of firms that use job-costing systems include law firms and firms that build custom houses. A process-costing system accumulates and analyzes costs by each process (or a department) rather than by each job. Examples of firms that use process-costing systems include steel mills and paper companies. Direct materials and direct labor are traced, and overhead is allocated. Work in process inventory is the inventory of unfinished products at the start of a period. Cost of goods manufactured is the cost of items finished and transferred from work in process inventory to finished goods inventory. Cost of goods sold is the cost of products sold in a period. It is the cost of items transferred from finished goods inventory to the income statement. A predetermined overhead rate equals expected overhead costs for the period divided by the expected activity level. Fi rms use predetermined overhead rates because actual overhead costs and activity volumes frequently fluctuate. A normal-costing system is a job-costing system that uses a predetermined overhead rate. Underapplied overhead means that the overhead applied to jobs is smaller than the amount actually spent on overhead. Overapplied overhead means that the overhead applied to jobs exceeds the amount spent on overhead. False – if a firm has underapplied overhead, the actual rate must have exceeded the predetermined rate. (1) correct rates are year end, (2) write off to cost of goods sold, and (3) prorate among inventory accounts and cost of goods sold. The adjustment will increase cost of goods sold and, in turn, decrease net income. The proration method allocates the under- or overapplied overhead to WIP inventory, FG inventory, and cost of goods sold in proportion to their unadjusted ending balances. Three accounts will be affected: (1) WIP, (2) FG, and (3) COGS. Income will be hig her under the proration method because some of the adjustment will be to the inventory account. Discussion Questions Job shops and process shops differ considerably in the extent to which we can trace costs to individual units and jobs. A pure job shop makes custom products. Each unit is a separate job and is unique. It is therefore possible to trace many costs directly to each job. However, in process shops, it is not possible to trace most costs to individual units. Rather, we can trace the costs, even for direct materials and direct labor, only at the process or departmental level. Yes. Each patient’s care may be viewed as a job. Many of the costs, including the costs of nurse care, attending physician’s time, medicines and drugs, room occupancy can be directly traced to the patient. Some indirect costs may still have to be allocated. However, such a system also has elements of process costing in that we might use pre-determined rates (e.g., $40 per hour of nursing or $100 per visit by a doctor) to determine costs rather than use actual costs. Business consulting firms are likely to have job-costing like systems. Fast food restaurants like McDonald’s have more of process costing-type environment.

HRM and the Public Sector Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

HRM and the Public Sector - Research Paper Example This paper now seeks to establish a general overview of human resources management, including its functions and its relation to public administration. This paper is being carried out in order to establish a general understanding of HRM functions, including their general applicability to corporations and to the public sector. The 20th century ushered in a period where researchers started to consider ways of establishing value through the efficient management of the workforce (Merkle, p. 3). This function started first as a transactional activity to manage payroll as well as to administer benefits. In the current globalized setting, however, where technological advancements, as well as company mergers, abound, HR is concerned with strategies on mergers, acquisitions, talent management, skill training, labor relations, industrial relations, diversity, as well as transition planning (Ulrich, p. 37). For new companies, the responsibilities of the HR are often carried out by trained professionals, and in some instances, even non-HR employees. For the larger companies, however, an entire unit or group of professionals is devoted to the management of human resources; these groups of professionals are involved in various HR duties, and they are engaged in strategic decision-making in the business (Ulrich, p. 23). In order to manage practitioners, academic institutions, professional associations, and corporations have established study programs in order to specifically meet the functions of corporations. Practitioners and academicians have also sought to engage deeper into the field of human resources based on various specific publications and research studies (Ulrich, p. 12). In businesses, the goals of human resources have been specifically described by Dave Ulrich as four-fold – first, to align HR and the organizational goals or to be a strategic partner; second, to re-engineer organizational processes or to be an administration expert.

Domino's Pizza Services Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Domino's Pizza Services Marketing - Essay Example Showcasing was first created from the products, which clarifies the watched delay in its application in the service segment in both Europe and the United States (He, Zha & Li, 2013). In the wake of showing the fundamental elements connected to showcasing services, a few areas will be produced: nearby services, budgetary services, services identified with transport and tourism. Services showcasing are advertising in view of connections and qualities. It can be utilized to advertise a product or service. Advertising services organization database is not quite the same as product showcasing the business. There are a few essential contrasts, including 1. The purchaser gains an unclear resource 2. Upkeep can be founded on the notoriety of one individual 3. It is harder to look at the nature of comparative services 4. The purchaser can't give back the service When you offer a service organization, we should remember that notoriety, value, conveyance and checking are critical to business achievement (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). "Dealing with the proof" alludes to the demonstration of educating customers that the service had been effectively met already. This is best done in inconspicuous ways, such as giving cases or depictions of good and poor service that can be utilized as a source of perspective. The principle reason is that the customer can't assess the aggregate cost of the service on the off chance that it is a decent benchmark for examination.

Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry - Research Paper Example Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry The review was a determination of the agencies that BofA would use to propel its image to the public in a positive manner. Therefore, the bank invited all the agencies that handled its advertisement and marketing accounts as well as those that did not handle these accounts. After the review, the bank agreed on having WPP handle its $2 billion global advertisement account and consequently cut its relationship with BBDO that started in 2006. Along with dropping BBDO, the bank consequently dropped the tagline â€Å"Bank of Opportunity† that was a creation of BBDO. However, it is crucial to point out that WPP did not take over the worldwide marketing and advertisement of BofA from a newcomer’s perspective. In this case, WPP took over these roles from the bank as an expansion of its earlier relationship with BofA since it had an existing relationship with the bank as it conducted the bank’s branding responsibilities. The fundamental difference between WPP and BBDO lie on the approach of the holding companies’ pitches. The CEO of Omnicom, whereby BBDO is one of the holding companies, observed this difference. He noted that Omnicom gave its principal agencies, like BBDO, the responsibility of playing the key role in a new business. On the other hand, WPP ensured that the holding company was supported throughout the process of acquiring a new business. In addition, WPP’s holding agencies collaborate while pitching for a new business while BBDO’s approach does not encourage collaboration.

Film Critique-Bioethical Imperatives Scholarship Essay

Film Critique-Bioethical Imperatives - Scholarship Essay Example With this concern, the essay examines the bioethical issues highlighted in the plots of these two movies by comparing and contrasting them, at the backdrop of the present relevant theories. Correspondingly, four ethical frameworks, including ‘justice’, ‘rights’, ‘duty’ and ‘virtue-based ethics’ will be addressed in this essay while comparing the above two films. The movies â€Å"And the Band Played On† as well as â€Å"The Rain Maker†, both addressed certain bioethical issues that emerged in the early 20th century based on the then conducted medical research. However, the former was a drama based on the suffering of the people and their lack of consciousness, giving an indication of the gaps persisting in the conservative society, while the later complied with the dimensions of all mystery, suspense and drama. â€Å"The Rain Maker† movie elaborated on a financial crisis faced by a boy suffering from leukemia, who could have been saved if only the insurance company was on agreeable terms to pay for the bone-marrow transplant (Cohen, n.d.). Subsequently, the plot for â€Å"And the Band Played On† was majorly focused on the ethical issues surrounding the rapidly increasing rate of HIV infection in early 1980s, indicating the influence of political factors on such issues (Noonan, 2008). The bioethics reflected in the latter revolves around the dimensions of medical ethics and its loopholes under the impression of strong socio-political judgments (Sass, 2007). Depending on the bioethical imperatives, four ethical frameworks have been considered to compare and contrast the plots in the two selected movies. The justice-based approach implies that people should be treated according to their respective hard work. However, the present world reflects a huge imbalance arising from uneven social power or financial power delegations (Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, 2014). For instance, â€Å"The Rain Maker† focused on the inequality

Outline the key features of cultural criminology Essay

Outline the key features of cultural criminology - Essay Example In other words it can be understood that crime is very much a human act and if we take out the civilization clause from the dictionary of human society and make it equivalent to the savagery, this crime is not exactly something which can be termed inhumane. It's something present in very nature of humans and they technically possess every characteristic of an animal. It is a threat that is comparable to anything that has been faced by the society in past but is actually a very intelligent form of threat that waits for the opportunity to transform its ability into an act of crime under the influence of desire. Hence this phenomenon of crime is basically an action which involves at least two human beings with one being the perpetrator and the other one is the victim. Crime prevention is another part of the solution that has to tackle the social complexity of crime. Though the legal procedures and enforcement agencies are very much present to redress the problem, they have miserably failed to provide something which will have some long term impact. They actually provide security either through prosecution or through prevention. Prosecution leads to arrest and a whole lot of legal procedures including the judgment and imprisonment. Prevention deals with stopping a criminal from committing something heinous. The option of committing a crime is to be closed. Hence the target issue is the creation the hindrance for a criminal through wide spread precautionary measures being implemented through every single home to any of the working place or public place present in the locality. The important point is to shield oneself from being a victim. The crime and its different techniques have to be made understood to each and every person. Right from the begin ning i.e., during childhood, one should be made aware of the prevention procedures and the importance of it has to be made a part of the complete thought process. But still after this much precaution the outcome of these procedures has been found to be very much limited and the crime rate is on its way to rise and rise. The most important thing is to act against the cause that make a criminal rather than reducing the opportunities for him to commit some crime. We have to realize that this criminal has been developed from this society only and the problem is in the social pattern and due to these patterns we have to face certain people who have got out of the normal way of social life and are acting against the group of which it is a very important part. So the new crime prevention should deal with the very cause of creation of a criminal and factors fuelling its growth. Criminology for Crime Prevention The humans have reached to the current age of information after getting a number of destruction and wars. Initially, it had to fight adversities of earth and its surroundings and after the formation of some civilization, it had to fulfill the expectations of the society and associated challenges as well as the responsibilities that came up along with the evolutionary process. The criminal instinct is the outcome of the

EBay in Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

EBay in Asia - Essay Example 22). EBay has been trying to make its way into the Asian markets. It has been noticed that the American companies have had to face some problems in making their ways into the Asian markets. However, Starbucks has been successfully working in Asian markets since many years. Cultures have an influence over the markets thus making them cultural markets and these are the main factors that are to be understood. EBay has been a failure in understanding the culture of Asian markets (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2005, p. 23). Gunaxi is the term that American companies should be familiar with. This explains the basic nature of dynamics involved in the personal network of influence and this concept runs in the Chinese society. This explains the dealing between two people in which one of the persons performs an act of service. EBay has failed to learn the fact that the Chinese, after the Africans, are corrupt people and bribery is a common factor in the Chinese society. To excel in the Chinese society, EBay has failed to make notice of the ways in which Chinese people could be handled so as to make ways in the markets. EBay had to make sure that right officials were bribed so as to make way into the markets (The University of California, 2006, p. 33). Marketing is an integrated communication based process wherein it is understood that the needs of the customers can be satisfied through proper communication. Marketing orientations play an important role in the marketing strategy. The product orientation is where the firm is concerned with the quality of the product. The sales orientation, customer orientation, production, marketing and organizational orientations are the main orientations that firms have to keep in mind. For proper marketing the four Ps are known to the marketing world. The four Ps are necessary to understand the basic requirements for international marketing. The four Ps are inclusive of the Product deals with specification related to the products as well as the needs of the customer. Pricing includes the prices as well as the discounts being offered on the products. Placement or distribution refers to the ways in which a product reaches the customer. Promotion is the way in which a product is marketed in the market so as to attract customers. These are the four main points that EBay has to keep in mind when reaching out to the international markets (Freeman and Bartels, 2004, p. 33). These are the four points which make up the marketing mix for any organization. Apart from these four points the other issues that should be kept in mind while reaching out to the international markets are the cultural differences with the other countries. These are the main errors that have been committed by EBay when making their ways into the international markets, especially Asian markets. In addition to this the expansion and entry into foreign markets can be achieved successfully by following the four mechanisms. Exporting is the mechanism by which an international market can be reached in a proper manner by selling the product in a foreign market. The property of the licensor for product production can be used by the mechanism of

Arab World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arab World - Essay Example an, Palestine and Syria, Maghreb that is composed of part of Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya, and the Arabian Peninsula that is composed of Oman, Yemen, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuwait (Yafi, 2012, pg. 18). These regions have differences in terms of economy, culture, political systems, timing, people, and the history. This paper defines the differences in the Arab World regions in terms of political systems, economy, and education after the Arab Spring. The political system is one of the major differences in these regions. The political boundaries of the Arab Peninsula is comprised of Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates. The vast region of the Arab Peninsula is covered by the Saudi Arabia. The majority of this population also comes from Saudi Arabia. The six countries from the Arab Peninsula have formed the Gulf Cooperation Council that oversees the running and maintenance of a political unity in these countries (Yafi, 2012, pg. 23). The six countries are Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. Most of these countries are monarchies except Bahrain, and Yemen. The Maghreb is made up of various modern territories. These include Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Mauritania. The formation of the Maghreb is linked to the need to promote co-operation both economically and politically the region through Muammar Gadhafi. The countries are republics except Morocco w hich is a monarchy. The Mashriq region is composed of countries that are on the Eastern side of Egypt. It composes countries such as Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Jordan is the only country that remains as a monarchy while the other countries are republics (Yafi, 2012, pg. 13). In terms of education, the regions have experienced issues that relate to the education of women. The literacy levels of the youths is higher in these countries compared to the adult literacy levels. The Arab Peninsula

Interaction and influences of genetics Essay Example for Free

Interaction and influences of genetics Essay The current belief in biology disqualify the fact that it is only the genes that determine most of the complex traits of a human being. It is well appreciated that DNA interacts at the molecular level with the signals from the environment as well as from other genes. When this concept is considered at the individual level, certain genes do influence trait development in context to a specific environment (Parens et al. , 2006). In this regard therefore, the degree into which a particular trait is influenced by the environment in relation to the genes depends on the specific environment and genes that have been examined. In most of the cases, it has been discovered that genes do contribute to someone’s personality, intelligence and even the psychological traits. Some of these traits maybe highly influenced by the environment in such circumstances as the environmental deprivation (Baker 2004). Environment genes and family traits. It is virtually possible now to measure the heritability of a trait in a certain population when these traits are determined through the complex interaction of environment and genotype. There is evidence that environmental factors within a family set up do have an effect on childhood IQ but on late adolescence it has been observed that the adoptive characteristics in the family siblings are not in any more unique than in the IQ of strangers (McInerney and Rothstein2007). Personality to a certain extent is heritable (Baker 2004). To support this belief, it has been observed that biological siblings are usually more similar in personality as compared to the adoptive ones while identical twins that have been brought up apart show personality similarity than other people who are randomly selected from the population (Parens et al. , 2006). Adoption studies have thus attempted to measure the strength of traits shared in a family. Though some studies indicate that adopted siblings only share the family environment, other studies have shown that by adulthood, the shared family effect on someone’s personality is usually zero. The question of biological determinism thus becomes real. That is if the genes do have a substantial role in the development of personality and even intelligence, then the question remains if genes really determine who really we are (McInerney and Rothstein2007). Though heritability measures used refer to the degree in which there is a variation between individuals in a certain population, these kinds of statistics are not applicable at an individual level. If a heritability index of a certain personality is 6, it would be inappropriate to say that the individual has 40% of personality traits from the environment and 60% from the parents (McInerney and Rothstein2007). Environment is a key factor that cannot be assumed at any point since even the highly genetically determined trait such as the eye color still do carry with them the environmental influence (e. g. atmospheric oxygen and temperature range). Genes do not directly determine the behavior but depending on the environmental context, they influence such conditions and physical traits as blood pressure, height, digestive activities and weight among others (Parens et al. , 2006). The same could be true of the psych-social complex behaviors. Each of these traits is affected by certain multiple genes that interact with various environmental factors. Thus a gene cannot be plainly said that it controls a behavior trait but rather it maybe more appropriate to say that is has an influence on any observed character (Baker 2004). Conclusion Genes that carry the power of heritability in an individual should be considered as enablers of character traits and not as constrainers as it may have been in some cases. Genes carry the possibilities of the organism but do not on the other hand reduce its options as the environment also has a role in enhancing them or even suppressing their expression. The social scientist can thus conclude that these new possibilities are not necessarily scripted in the advance but rather open to the individuals experience.

National Security and Free

National Security and Free Press Essay The adage of perception is reality is the impact media has regarding national security and the DoDs response to media. Since John F. Kennedys assignation, through the Vietnam War, OPERATION Desert Storm to the present, people are fascinated with real-time media information for current events; this information is truth in the publics eyes. President Bushs decision to place troops in Somalia and President Clintons decision to remove troops from Mogadishu are national security ecisions made based on public perception (Belknap, 2001, 1). The National Security Council, consists of political officials, with the exception of the chiefs of staff military advisors; these elected officials make decisions in the interest of national security based on public perception derived from free press. Free press impacts national security by decisions based on public perception and the DoD should utilize free press to reveal benefits of military action in relation to national security (Snow, 2006, 4). Imbedded public media deployed with our C-130 unit with the intent of publicizing a soldiers perspective of combat operation. This made us feel our involvement is shared along with the greater media picture to give the public a more complete understanding of war from tactical to strategic perspective. In the book Lone Survivor, a Navvy SEAL Team on an operation in Afghanistan let perception of civilian casualties the media would relay, sway combat decisions to save military lives Lutrell, 2007, 232). This perception is the negative impact soldiers face these days. Media imbed within military operations will relay to the public a tactical level perspective of the national security implications of free press. Overall, public opinion is influenced by free press; national security decisions are influenced by public opinion. The DoD should utilize the freedom of press to influence public opinion in the interest of national security. Belknap, Margaret

The Social Context of Death and Dying

The Social Context of Death and Dying Introduction Using course materials from Death and Dying, I will discuss the idea that death is something to be feared. I will use course material from Block 1, The Social Context of Death and Dying, focusing on units 1 and 2. I will provide evidence of arguments for and against this notion and consider other attitudes of how these views are formed by society. I will also illustrate my answers using materials form the course website, reader and audio activities. I have also incorporated some personal and professional experience. in an attempt to illustrate my points. Death is portrayed and discussed in various ways by people from all walks of life, their upbringing and religious views can have an impact on how they perceive death. As discussed in Block 1, one indicator that death is something to fear is our use of language. This anxiety is demonstrated in the euphemisms individuals use when describing or explaining a death. For example when undertaking activity 1.1, Explaining the meaning of death, (Block 1, unit 1, pg 1). I discussed my first experience of death. I recall having to explain to my youngest sibling that our mother had died. My sister was 8 years old and I sat her down and spoke firstly about angels and the stars. I went on to tell her that God had decided he needed mum to be an angel. I couldnt bear to use the word dead as I was struggling with mum being dead and was of the view that using the word ‘dead would have been too painful and therefore spoke about angels to make it less emotive. Since then I have experienced the dea th of other relatives and friends and find that I will use euphemisms such as, â€Å"passed away† or â€Å"gone to a better place†. I have also heard myself use phrases such as â€Å"kicked the bucket, however, this is usually when referring to someone I didnt really know. A number of examples are provided in block 1 in relation to euphemisms used to describe what occurs after death. Spiritualist and Mediums use words such as â€Å"crossing over† or â€Å"passed over† as they see the death as the beginning of a journey from this world to what they describe as the ‘spirit world. Komaromy (2005) spoke of how she found that whilst exploring how death and dying were managed in care homes, was â€Å"frequently met with difficulty over the use of words ‘death, ‘dying and ‘dead† (Block 1, unit 1, section 1.2, pg 13). It would appear the fear of using these words were not necessarily from the residents themselves but by those who cared for them. The beliefs instilled in people from a young age from their family, educational professionals and religious sources as well as their personal experience of death can often have a profound impact on how they perceive death and dying. Roman Catholics appear comfortable when speaking about death as they see death as a momentous event that should not be feared. Catholics believe in life after death, stating the soul leaves the body and will normally spend a period in Purgatory and when the soul is cleansed of the temporal consequences of sin they will enter heaven. However some anxiety remains, as for many, there is uncertainty of how long their soul will remain in purgatory. â€Å"They do not fear the next world, but rather the passage, the crossing over..† (Toscani, et al(2003), OU course material, website). Professor Douglas Davis research highlighted that gender plays a significant role in the belief in life after death in contemporary British Society. He states that women are far more likely to believe in an afterlife, than men, with a ratio of almost 2:1. He informs 30% of the population with a similar gender imbalance believe the dead remain among us and have had contact in one form or another with their loved one. (Audio1, activity 1.8, Identity and Belief). This I would argue is based on a persons knowledge of the deceased and is linked to their sense of identity and the need to continue the link with their loved one, which in turn may offer comfort and peace of mind to those who are bereaved. People also seek comfort through contact with the dead via spiritualists and mediums, in an effort to communicate with loved ones. Justine Picardie describes this as attending a social gathering of the dead (Picardie in Making Sense of Death and Dying and Bereavement: An Anthology, pg 198, E arle, et al). Research and studies regarding the beliefs and views of individuals in life after death vary from person to person depending on their religious or non-religious beliefs. For example the article â€Å"Life at the end of Life: beliefs about individual life after death and â€Å"good death† models a qualitive study† Toscani, F., et al, highlights two different models and arguments regarding death and what would be classed as a â€Å"good death†. The attitudes and assumptions depend on whether the individual is a believer or non-believer but even then there can be conflicting opinions between faiths. Tibetan Buddhism describes in great detail the process of death and the passage over. Tibetan Buddhists are encouraged to read â€Å"The Tibetan Book of the Dead† and when an individual is dying, there is a common conception that it is good to read this book to the dying person. â€Å"By understanding the death process and familiarisingour self with it, we can remove fear at the time of death and ensure a good rebirth† (Death and Dying in the Tibetan Buddhist Tradition, Hawter; V.P internet source: Buddahnet.com). In contrast, Seventh-day Adventist beliefs regarding death are totally different from those of other religions. Adventists believe that people do not die nor do they go to Heaven or Hell. It is their belief that the individual â€Å"goes to sleep and will rise again on the Day of Judgement†. (Kormaromy, 2005, Block1, unit 1, section 1.2, pg13). By this they mean the person will remain unconscious until the return of Christ. The views of atheists vary, although the consensus is that there is no life after death, that when we die, we die, and that is it. â€Å"If I am, death is not; if death is, I am no longer: why, then, fear death?† (Toscani,et al(2003), OU course website, pg 8). This does not mean that atheists do not have a fear of death, like believers there are similarities with regards to how they will die and where they would like to die. I worked with a family whose child was dying. When trying to support the family through this difficult period they spoke of feeling angry at individuals who had questioned why they were not in church praying. They informed me that as far as they were concerned that when their child died that was the end. They stated their only fear was that their child would die alone if they left his side. The management of death and dying has changed over time. French Historian, Phillipe Aries claimed that in the Middle Ages people appeared more optimistic with regards to death, as they acknowledged death as part of life, as it unavoidable. The death affected not only the family of the deceased but the community as a whole. With individuals being assigned particular roles, for example, preparing the body for burial, announcing the death and it was customary to view the body of the deceased. Death was a common occurrence and this may explain why death was seen as inevitable and therefore not feared. Aires argued that after the 19th century death in western society was hidden and following the First World War, death became a taboo subject and was no longer seen as a natural process of life. (Block 1, unit 2.2, pg 38). The explanation for this could be that it was due to what we know as the ‘nuclear family era? Norbert Elias (1985) would argue that in todays society the role of preparing the deceased has been taken over by funeral directors who offer a wide range of services to the family. This includes collecting and preparing the body for burial or cremation. In my own recent experience of the death of my son, the only duty the funeral director could not undertake was to register the death. Elias argument â€Å"is that dying people are now more isolated than in the past† (Block 1, Unit 2.2 pg40). It should be noted that some traditions continue, for example, the viewing of the deceased remains within many faiths be it within a church setting or funeral directors chapel of rest, although this is usually by family and close friends. This could explain why Aires theory that death after the 19th century did not have an overall impact on the community but rather than on a smaller network, family and friends. German Sociologist, Norbert Elias (1985), (Block 1, unit 2.2, pg 40) challenged Aires ideas, that in the past, death was accepted as being a natural process. Elias claimed death was painful as life was much shorter and more dangerous. Conclusion Perhaps the idea of life after death allows us to cope with what can only be seen as a natural fear as the alternative, non-existence is unimaginable and we are psychologically inept to deal with this. Therefore we need to ask the question is death something feared by all? Is this a hypothesis or could it be that for many individuals, especially, those in old age or with a terminal illness that death could be the beginning of something better. It can therefore be argued that whilst individuals and society have diverse opinions regarding death and what happens to them when they die, the majority do have a fear of how they will die. For example being alone, suffering pain, dying young or, being forgotten.

Iago in William Shakespeares Othello Essay examples -- Shakespeare Ch

Iago in William Shakespeare's Othello Iago has many motives for destroying the other characters in the play. One of these is jealousy. Iago is jealous of Othello, Desdemona, Cassio and even his own wife, Emilia. He is jealous of Othello for many reasons. Iago wants the power and the respect that Othello has. We see this in Act 2 scene 1 where Iago says ‘the moor- howbeit I endure him not- is of a constant, loving, noble nature’ which hints that he wants what Othello has as they are both opposites and these attributes may be the ones he will need to gain power. Iago is jealous of Othello’s marriage with the senator’s daughter as it gives Othello even more power and an attractive wife- he envies Othello for his wife as he states ‘I do love her too’ which suggest that Iago may have feelings towards Desdemona making him more jealous of what Othello has. Also Iago is crude and racist and always calls Othello the ‘moor’ which is a racist term. This could be the reason for his jealousy as he finds the fact that Othello is above him quite unnatural. In his soliloquy, Iago states ‘he’s done my office’ referring to Othello, which means Othello has slept with his wife making him even more jealous, even though he does not know if it is true or not. Iago is also jealous of Desdemona. He wants to be in her place- he wants to be an influential person to Othello- he wants to be closer to him thus closer to power. He twists the fact that Othello is passionate and obsessed with Desdemona to his own advantage. We see this when Iago states that he will ‘put the moor at least into a jealousy so strong that judgement cannot cure’ meaning that Iago will use... ...om Cassio) with his words and need not use them anymore. We are left to make our own minds up about why Iago did it. There are hints here and there but still we do not know him well enough to conclude what his reasons were from the evidence we receive throughout the play. We cannot even be sure that Iago was telling us his true thoughts in his soliloquies about Othello and Cassio having slept with Emilia. May be he is motiveless: he just invents reasons to be bad. We do not hear of the affair situation anywhere outside Iagos soliloquies. He does say himself ‘I am not what I am’ so does this not mean that anything he seems to be he is not and everything he says is a lie. I believe that Iago is the character with the most depth that I have ever encountered- so much depth that it becomes almost impossible to analyse him.

Music Censorship Essays -- essays research papers

Censor This   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why is it that when a person that listens to music that may promote violence and contains â€Å"objectionable† lyrics does a bad thing, families are quick to point out that it was external materials such as the music that influenced the person to do it?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is the controversy over music censorship. Music censorship is the attempt or action taken by any agency to limit or hold back anything in music that a community may find offensive to its beliefs or values.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Musicians are artists, and often their music reflects the life that they are exposed to. I have to hear about a painting or sculpture being censored because it may seem objectionable. Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, it reads as follows: â€Å"Congress shall make no law representing an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and petition the government for a redress of grievances.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In other words, the First Amendment states that it is illegal for the Government to censor an artist. The First Amendment doesn’t apply to censorship by record companies, community groups, or radio stations - that’s why censorship still exists. The Amendment protects a musician’s ability to freely express their views on people and the world around us. When censors ...

The Atomic Bomb Helpful or Harmful Essay -- essays papers

The Atomic Bomb Helpful or Harmful There used to be a time in America when the name â€Å"Atomic Bomb† seemed fictional to some, non existent to others,and seemed only a dream to those in the science world. That time is long gone.The day that changed all ideas and opinions about what war was and what is has evolved to be was August 6,1945. President Truman had decided to drop the Atomic bomb in order to end the war and save as many lives as possible. The United States had dropped the bomb on Hiroshima in order to end the war almost instantly and avoid bloody invasion, thereby saving both American and Japanese lives. Whether or not to drop the atomic bomb was president Truman’s decision, faced with this decision Truman researched and asked advisors to share their ideas about the bomb and then made the best decision for the American and Japanese people. â€Å" In an invasion of Japan,the fighting would have been more savage, and the number of lives lost on both sides would of been tragic.†(O’Neal 35) The Atomic bomb was essential in helping to put and en d to the war and saving lives. The decision to drop the atomic bomb was made by President Truman . In his decision he states, â€Å" The only thing that was the right thing to do for the American and Japanese people was to end the war through the use of the atomic bomb.† ( O’Neal 36) Why all the controversy over the bomb? Historians and people today continue to ask this question along with others. Were the Japanese seriously considering surrendering before the bomb was let off, and was the only way the war could of been ended ended was throughout the bomb? The atomic bomb saved lives on both sides and served it’s purpose of helping to end the war. The facts remain the Atomic Bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima killed many civilians, but if the war continued to go on it would of killed many more. When President Truman walked in to the White House he had problems and decisions lying ahead of him that he knew little about.In his first few days of briefing from advisors and committee he had said,†I have to decide Japanese strategy-shall we invade Japan proper or shall we bomb and blockade? That is my hardest decision to date .but I’ll make it when I have all the facts. â€Å"(Takaki 26) As you can see Truman had no intention of making uneducated decisions and he was by no means in a rush to bo... ...tomic bomb was being assembled at the time and it was to be let off on Tokyo, that bomb was never used. The 500,000 lives that were saved in bombing Hiroshima compared to the 100,000 that died in the bombing shows that Truman did in fact make the best decision when lives were at stake. Bibliography: Alperovitz, Gar. The Use of the Atomic Bomb. Chicago : D.C. Heath and Company, 1974. Blow, Michael. The History of the Atomic Bomb. New York ,New York:American Heritage Publishing and Company Inc., 1968. Feis, Herbert. The Atomic Bomb and the end of World War II. Chicago: Princeston University Press, 1866. Kurzman, Dan. Day of the Bomb. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1986. Nardo, Don. Modern Japan. California: Lucent Books, 1995. O’Neal, Michael. President Truman and the Atomic Bomb. San Diego,California Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1990. Takaki, Ronald. Hiroshima. Canada: Little Brown and Company Limited, 1995. Wheeler, Keith. World WarII Time Life Books. Virginia: Time Life Books Inc., 1983. Wyden, Peter. Day One Before Hiroshima and After. New York: Simon and Schustler, 1984.

Outline on Genital Herpes

Kamara Gayle Outline of Major Report November 12, 2011 Title: An Introduction to Genital Herpes Introduction The definition of Genital Herpes Symptoms of Genital Herpes Treatment for Genital herpes The definition of Genital Herpes. A. Definition 1. Genital herpes is highly contagious, sexually transmitted viral infection of the genital and anal regions caused by herpes simplex virus and characterized by small clusters of painful lesions. B. First discovered by Hippocrates in the early ancient Greek times.Hippocrates was a Greek physician and that was highly reckoned as the superlative physician of his time. The human body and observation was his main focus and medical practice. Hippocrates discovered that illness in the body was not caused by superstitions and by possession of evil spirit. Based on his study he realized that the body must be treated as a whole and not just series of parts, natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air, cleanliness. However, severity of symp toms varys from one person to another and thoughts, ideas, feeling come from the brain and the heart.C. Rate of occurrence 50 to 80 percent of the adult populations have Genital Herpes. Approximately 1 out of 5 female ages from 14 to 49 and Approximately 1 out of 9 male ages from 14 to 49 have Genital Herpes. Most of the time these individuals do not know they have the virus D. Causes Being female Being born to a mother with active genital herpes during pregnancy or delivery Having a compromised immune system due to medications or such conditions as HIV/AIDS Having multiple sexual partnersHaving unprotected sex, including vaginal, oral, or anal sex, with a partner who has had one or more other sexual partners History of another sexually transmitted disease III. Symptoms of Genital Herpes A. Primary Infection Painful red blister that burst to leave open sores around the genitals, rectum (back passage) The blistering and ulcers on the cervix In woman a vaginal discharge Very painfull when passing urine Temperature fever of 38Â ° C (100. 4 Â °F) or over Not feeling well with aches and pain in general B. Recurrent Infection Signaled by a tingling sensation Itching in the genital areasPain in the buttocks or down the leg IV. Treatments for Genital Herpes A. Oral medications Famciclovir (Farmvir) Valacyclovir (Valtrex) Acyclovir (Zovirax) These prevent the virus from multiplying and even shorten the length of eruption. B. Self-care at home Avoid excessive heat or sunlight that makes the irritation more uncomfortable. Do not used perfume or antibacterials soaps, feminine deodorant or douches. Wear comfortable loose fitting cotton clothing. Take aspen, acetaminopen (tylenol and others) Used cool cloths on the affected area if it soothes the pain. V. Conclusion

The Adoption of the 13th Amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1965

The Adoption of the thirteenth Am prohibitment to the complaisant ripes cultivate of 1965 In the trance of the ordinal century African the Statesn travelight-emitting diode with European explorers, especially Spanish and Portuguese to the New world much serving as crew members, servants and slaves (Bigelow, 2011).African Americans were free in the be slip noosening clock of the New solid ground, though first washcloth farmingowners faced labor crisis, what appe ard easiest was to force the strong, unflagging African Americans to sla very by the mid-sixteen hundreds, consequence the get together States Constitution in 1788 did non overhaul, it guaranteed referity only to innocences and consider dimmeds as three-fifths of a person (Bigelow, 2011). The end of the Civil War and the help of Abraham Lincoln, in celestial latitude 1865 the xiii Amendment to the constitution was adopted, stating that slavery was abolished, though it was the descent of bneedinesss worst skins to come (Bigelow, 2011).The pas measure will view African-Americans lives from the adoption of the Thirteen Amendment to the Civil Rights passage of 1965 focusing how they put up worked to end segregation, discrimination and isolation to form compeerity and the polishedised goods. Technology help the New World flash its shape, tho legion(predicate) would not know that African Americans had a huge tinge evolution the beginning of it. In 1790 an invention that impacted this countries production of cotton plant was the cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney an African American, it helped separate the cotton from the cotton seed which leave behinded the textile attention to grow (Trotter, 2000).This did not help the blacks they were not viewed as having technical companionship expert now only as labor workers, which pushed slavery and Nat Turners rebellion in 1832 which outlawed blacks to picture, write and cipher (Trotter, 2000). 1836 the U. S. bare Act came to affect which indispensable inventors to table models showing the construction, design and specifications, which the literacy restriction denied African Americans to patent their inventions (Trotter, 2000).Then in 1857 the US Supreme Courts Dred and Scott decision, the national government rule that enslaved blacks were not citizens which they could not receive patents for their inventions (Trotter, 2000). all(prenominal) this things became obstacles for African Americans to be recognized for their inventions and knowledge in technology. African Americans continue get-up-and-go for turn ond and with blacks universe excluded from the industrial industry, the impact of emancipations, well-behaved rights law and constitutional amendment, African Americans went from slaves to citizens which gave them rights, which led to many more inventions.The shoe lasting machine was a worthy invention by Jan Matzeligers, this machine would given the upper part of the shoe to the sole, which at the generation was only d unity by hand in advance 50 fit of shows were code in a day judgment of conviction and by the time he improve the machine 700 pairs of shoes were done in a 10 hour day (Jan Matzeliger, 2011). Other inventions came from Elijah McCoy, who invented numerous lubrication devices for locomotives engines for the rail passageways and boat go engines and Grandville T.Woods electrical inventions, including a telephone transmitter (Trotter, 2000). It seems African Americans were pitiful forward though soon later African Americans face an author(a) struggle Jim Crows Law or down(p) Codes. This brought the beginning of segregation Jim Crows law took voting rights because when the fifteenth Amendment gave those rights to Africans Americans it left loop holes which it was required to take literacy tests and the practice of poll taxes, which again discriminated the blacks (Bowles, 2011). analyse taxes required blacks to show either a payment or a make of estate of the realm ownership and the literacy test required blacks to know how to read which most new-fashioned freed slave did not know how to read because of the Nat Turner that took education privileges away before the Civil War (Bowles, 2011). Jim Crows laws overly illogical and micklegraded African Americans from the face cloths, exclusively not for yen because the westbound brought many more opportunities to African Americans.The government excluded Asian immigrants but allow African Americans to take advantage of the settle Act of 1862, allowing to purchase 160 soil of go through for $1. 25 per acre and to take land for free if a homesteader farmed it for a period of five doddering age (Bowles, 2011). an new(prenominal)(prenominal) Act was the Timber act of 1873 this stated if settlers planted trees of at least one-quarter of the land for four old age it gave them the option of victorious another 160 acres of land for free, which helped solve some occupat ions of isolation because the West was un cognize and required collaboration of race and government (Bowles, 2011).World War I as well as brought opportunities to African Americans because it called out for 2. 8 million US Citizens out to war which left many Northern jobs vacated which skiped the time of the great migration (Bowles, 2011). African Americans got the luck to course North in Massachusetts munitions plants, daddy steel mills, and New Jersey brick yards, it was verbalize half a million migrated some World War II (Bowles, 2011).In the 1920s to 1930s blacks worked very secure to become better and have equal rights but many industrial places quieten believed in the Jim Crows law, which the blacks moved from job to jobs, organize all black labor unions similar the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, internal and servant unions, which broke the strike of preferential livid labor unions in aluminum, ember mining, meatpacking and the steel industries (Trotter, 2000 ). By 1926 10,000 blacks worked for total heat Ford and gave them many opportunities a standardised(p) supervisory positions, those who worked for Ford matt-up superior to other plants (Trotter, 2000).This was a rising time for African Americans and as proven, standing their ground and push forward was what it required to gain equals rights and the choke of a time for those to fight for what belonged to them. In the beginning of the 1930s many intellectuals like Richard Wright believed that the Communist Party of the United States of America CPUSA was the best solution to fight racial inequalities in employment, lodgement and education (Carreiro, 1999). The CPUSA was known as total darknesstarians the members seemed to adopt intellectual ontogeny and independence thought from African Americans (Carreiro, 1999).Zora Neal Hurtson an anthropologist and originator was the first to use the term Negrotarians they were vacuous humanitarians and philanthropist who aesthetically and financially support young black artist (Carreiro, 1999). In Voice of the Negro sourced and excerpted stories from African Americans newspapers and publish them in 1920 was Robert Kerlin (Bowles, 2011). This gave whites an opportunity to understand primary of how African Americans lives were in the United States, which gave blacks an opportunity to speak to become equal (Bowles, 2011).African Americas racial pride and intense go for for equality, the Harlem rebirth began, they were Harlem artist who demanded respect (Bowles, 2011). From 1920-1934 the whites hearty reformers and black intellectual faced many problems and whites continue to dominate political and social institutions with no gains of civil rights (Carreiro, 1999). The South proceed the Jim Crows law and voting restriction and in the North blacks dealt with color-line employment, housing and entertainment (Carreiro, 1999).Harlem metempsychosis declined and was face to a shift of frugal and social reform, which was greatly shown in 1933 during the slap-up Depression (Carreiro, 1999). African continue energy forward in a cruel roller coaster of improvement and then having to start again, but the hard work had been noticed, but hard times called for focus in a time like the keen Depression. African Americans continue the battle of equal rights and believed to fight for the country they lived in. So when World War II came almost, nearly one million setd, but continued being segregated in to black units led by white officers (Bowles, 2011).Many did not back down and continue to fight for the equal rights they deserved, so on April 12, 1945 ci U. S. Army African American Officers were taking in to custody because they refuse an put from a superior officer, they refused segregation of housing and recreational areas (Bowles, 2011). African American pilots also protested segregation and many showed it by risking their lives, like the Tuskegee airmen Fighter Group 332nd, who flew 15,000 sor ties and shot down more than 200 German aircraft, though none were recognized for their heroism, until 50 years later by Bill Clinton (Bowles, 2011).The years from 1950s to 1960s many African leaders arise, like members of the NAACP, women, ministers, black provide organizations, and youths from colleges, all protesting for segregation, discrimination and isolation to end for civil rights. A notable civil rights bowel try was in 1954 with the ruling of browned vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, it help commix African Americans and whites at schools (Bowles, 2011).Oliver brown argued that it was injustice to make his miss to walk several miles to cons accepted an all-black school, when a school of all-white was only three draw a blank away from her home, which the Plessy vs. Ferguson decision Plessy stated that schools indispensable to be equal. In this case it was just making it harder for his daughter and other children to attend school, so Chief Justice Earl warre n ruled in favor of Oliver chocolate-brown (Bowles, 2011). though the ruling was done it alas left the rest, for the board of education to realize out when they would desegregate, which they were in no cannonball along to do anything about it.argon governor Orval Fau flock opposed the ruling and assembled the Arkansas bailiwick Guard to confront it, but chair Eisenhower did not allowed and sent 1,000 paratroopers from the 101st airborne Division to allow the Little rock-and-roll Nine to attend the all-white Central naughty School in Little Rock, Arkansas (Bowles, 2011). President Eisenhower was a huge influencer to civil rights, he approved the Civil Rights Act of 1957, it did not do much irresponsible to African Americans but it helped raiseed a civil rights office within the incision of Justice, with 10 lawyers staffing it (Bowles, 2011).Other influencers of the time, that kept things true through music was Bob Dylan, recounting about the 14 year old boy Emmet Till who was shell to death by two white men, and both later released (Bowles, 2011). Times were oaf and in spark of the civil rights ordure this set them back in times of hatred and violence, segregation continue in the South and the Brown decision disappeared in Arkansas, a new strategy compulsory to be comeed. Rosa pose a 42 year old African American women and former secretary of the NAACP, road a jalopy in capital of aluminum, aluminium on December 1, 1955 helped focus on a new strategy to civil rights (Bowles, 2011).Riding the bus was not the problem, the problem was that the city ordinance stated that African Americans had to give up their seat on a train or bus if a white person asked it also stated blacks were not allowed to sit correspond with a white person. Rosa Parks refused to give her seat when a white man asked for it he got off the next stop, called authorities and had her arrested (Bowles, 2011). As a former NAACP she was committed to the movement but she acted as a private citizen, which led to the Montgomery bus boycott.A 26 year-old black pastor responding with poetic and deeply felt nomenclature led to another approach of civil rights movement, his name was Dr. Marti Luther business leader, Jr. He helped organized the Montgomery bus boycott, about 90 percent of blacks that normally rode the bus on a daily tail began walking, riding a bicycle or carpooling to work (Bowles, 2011). He also helped weightlift for them to buy less at Christmas since the lack of transportation, plus it was a good time to show what Christmas was truly about.The boycott lasted until the Browder vs. Gayle federal case, which showed that segregation laws were unconstitutional, which helped King become a noticeable civil rights leader, with stories show in New York Times cartridge, he appearing in the cover of Time, and was the second African America guest in NBCs Meet the Press (Bowles, 2011). Following Gandhi unprovocative philosophy he was able to machina te many more boycotts in other cities, which led other to view this movement differently in a more nonviolent way.The Student Nonviolent arrange Committee formed sit-ins as a form to protest. Four African American freshmen from the North Carolina Agricultural and technical College sit under a sign that read, We dont serve colored present but they did not cared and remained seated until resolution and promised to return the next day trough served (Bowles, 2011). This movement spread quickly with approximately 70,000 people sitting in crosswise the nation, some 2,000 arrested and some were attacked by whites (Hall, 2007).The NAACP a national leader supplied bail specie and ratified advice to this activist, and later 3000 from the NAACP boycott stores that practice discrimination which dropped sales because of the refusal to buy (Hall, 2007). Though this movement was nonviolent others like the white used force one being done in 1963 Bull Connor let go of police hang backs and blue-pressure hoses on Black school-children in Birmingham, Alabama bringing blacks to the streets (Hall, 2007). King went to Washington, DC, where he gathered 200,000 demonstrators at the field Mall and addressed them with his famous We Shall traverse speech on August 23, 1963. Kings words at the capital that day were a defining moment of the Civil Rights movement (Bowles, 2011). After the assassination of President Kennedy, Johnson assures coition he would honor the passage of the civil rights bill that Kennedy fought for before his death.The Civil Right Act of 1964 stated, An Act, to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney command to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the centering on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federall y assisted programs, to establish a Commission on allude Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes (Bowles, 2011). This helped start the EEOC, the pair Employment Opportunity Commission who serve as a watch dog to employers to treat every employee equally. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was the final pass after a march that ended as the blinking(a) Sunday blacks were attacked as they walked 52 miles from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama (Bowles, 2011). These boycotts, sit-ins and marches led to a diverge in laws and lead to the end of legal segregation of the races, known as the de jure segregation (Bowles, 2011).African Americans are sure very hard working citizens to what they believe are right and will go the strangle to prove this right. With continues roller coasters over high and rocky mountains, blacks accomplished many achiever that lead to the Acts passed in 1965. Many of the essence(p) people including some white support the end of segregation and civil rights which with constancy and courage it was shown it was something accomplishable over time, since variegate requires time.? ReferencesBigelow, B. C. (2011). African Americans. Retrieved October 2, 2011, from Countries and Their Cultures website http//www. everyculture. com/multi/A-Br/African-Americans. hypertext markup language Bowles, M. (2011). A storey of the United States since 1865. San Diego, CA Bridgepoint Education Carreiro, A. E. (1999, Summer). Ghosts of the Harlem Renaissance Negrotarians in Richard Wrights Native Son. The Journal of Negro History, 84(3), 247-259. Retrieved from http//www. jstor. rg/ stable/2649004 Hall, S. (2007, November). Civil Rights Activism in sixties Virginia. Journal of Black Studies, 38(2), 251-267. Retrieved from http//www. jstor. org/stable/40034978 Jan Matzeliger. (2011). Retrieved October 2, 2011, from http//www. blackinventor. com/pages/ jan-matzeliger. html Trotter, J. W. , Jr. (2000, Fall). African Americans and the Industrial Revolution. OAH Magazine of History, 15(1), 19-23. Retrieved from http//www. jstor. org/stable/25163396