The Question Of Whether To Legalize Drugs Or Not Is A Very Essays

The question of whether to legalize drugs or not is a very controversial and important issue. Drugs affect so many areas of society. "The U.S. population has an extremely high rate of alcohol and drug abuse" (Grolier). Several groups have formed and spoken out regarding their position. "Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization is the first step in helping to deliver the credible, consistent message about the risks and costs of the legalization of drugs to people in terms that make sense to them. The anti-legalization message is effective when communicated by representatives of the Federal Government, but takes on even more credibility when it comes from those in the community who can put the legalization debate in local perspective" (Internet). After learning about the issues regarding both sides of the argument, I would choose to support those who oppose legalization of any drugs. Drugs simply create problems which effect society in several ways. The government has made several efforts to control drugs and their users, however, to most the problem appears too out of hand. "Others see potential profit in legalizing drugs and still others simply believe that individual rights to take drugs should be protected. The group also acknowledged that the legalization concept appeals to people who are looking for simple solutions to the devastating problem of drug abuse" (Internet). Societys answer to the problem is to trick the drug user by giving him what he wants. People believe that making drugs legal will take away the temptation to use them. This idea is wrong and far from logical. If drugs are legalized then they will be more accessible to the young, addicted, and ignorant. "As a result the ready availability of addicting drugs, and as a result of their heavy use for medical problems, many individuals became addicted to the narcotics contained in these potent medicines. In fact, in 1900, there were more narcotics addicts, proportionate to the population, than there are today. At that time, most of the users who became addicts were medical addicts. Very few abusers took drugs for "recreational" purposes. In 1914, in an effort to curb the indiscriminate use of narcotics, the federal government passed the Harrison Act, making it illegal to obtain a narcotic drug without a prescription. During the 1920s the Supreme Court ruled that maintaining addicts on narcotic drugs, even by prescription, was in violation of the Harrison Act. Some 30,000 physicians were arrested during this period for dispensing narcotics, and some 3,000 actually served prison sentences. Consequently, doctors all but abandoned the treatment of addicts for nearly half a century in the United States" (Grolier). The only resulting effect will be a negative one. There are no positive aspects of putting drugs on the streets with a label reading"legal." There are plenty of people in society that find enough trouble on their own without the help of their country. Legalizing drugs would have a devastating result that would affect society as a whole. "Audiences need to understand that 70% of drug users are employed, and that the school bus driver who drives your children to school could smoke marijuana, that the surgeon who operates on you may have cocaine in his system, and that the driver in back of you may be on speed. The debate needs to demonstrate graphically how the common man will be impacted by drug legalization" (Internet). There is an idea that the "drug user" is a low class, unemployed junkie. This is untrue. The drug user is often a white collared worker with a family and a future. They are not all dirty with missing teeth and poor grammar. The common misconceptions of the"user" are dangerous to those members of society trying to rid the world of the problem. "Drinking on the job is a social and economic problem with a long history. With the growing popularity of illegal drugs in the 1960s and 1970s, it was to be expected that their use in the workplace would emerge as a major issue by the 1980s. Estimates of employee drug use vary greatly, ranging from 10 percent to 25 percent for the proportion of workers who use drugs occasionally on the job. The safe performance of some occupations - among them, airline pilot, air traffic controller, truck driver, and physician - can be compromised by drug use" (Grolier). One of the greatest concerns of drugs is their contribution to the crime rate. Crime will always be a problem as long as drugs exist and are abused. "One category of crime is the victimless crime, which includes drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution and gambling. The use of the term victimless

Current issues in global business effects of population trends and the over aging of many western countries

Current issues in global business effects of population trends and the over aging of many western countries Abstract The global population trend is notably aging. A study of the population trend together with its possible impacts indicates a looming crisis that could have global negative effects on both economic and social factors. In this paper, research is done from secondary sources of information to give a detailed overview of the population trend with specification to some countries in both the west and east. The study reveals that policies should be formulated, either globally or at national levels to subvert the looming crisis due to the aging population.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Current issues in global business: effects of population trends and the over aging of many western countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction The demographic structures of a society or a nation define all aspects of life, whether social, economic or political. Institutions and individual persons make decisions that that affects these aspects. The discussion in this writing seeks to discuss effects of population trend and the over-aging of many western countries. With information from current resources like magazines and journals published in March 2011 and current books, the paper will discuss economic impacts of the population trend and the over-aging of the western countries on the global economic environment. The paper will also discuss the political and social impacts of demography. Population Trend Mathematicians examine a trend in terms of a pattern that is adopted by a particular subject. These patterns occasionally have significant implications on a variety of real life issues. Statistical measures like census or sample surveys reveal quantities and their implications on the environment. A case study of a population census revealed in March, 2011 by North Field News had interesting revelations. The data indicated that population growth primarily happens in metropolitan and not in rural areas. In fact, the average growth rate is twenty percent in the cities while the individual county with the highest growth rate recorded only seven percent. This is due to significant migration to the cities (Lindberg 1). According to a catholic journal published on seventeenth March, 2011, the life expectancy in the United States of America has vastly increased with a significant decrease in the death rate. In addition, life expectancy increased to about eighty years in the year 2009. It was further reported that the number of older people are generally on the increase in developing countries. A seven percent average increase is estimated for centenarians in the United States-centenarians are people who are at least one hundred years old (Catholic 1). Recently, Germany reported a crisis due to ageing of the workforce and decreasing population over all. They estimated that the workforce will reduce by about five million in the next decade. Germany is just an example, though a closely similar trend is predicted in many of the western countries (Larry and Kollewe 1).Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Similarly, it has been noted in the United States that the aging problem if developing. An increased life expectancy together with significantly increasing percentage of the elderly in the American population is notable. It can be statistically concluded that the population trend is changing in the United States and other western countries. A sample of the United States and European countries like the Germany, Britain and Spain can be used as an inference to the general population trends in the America and European countries. The increased health and medical facilities in these developed countries can be used to explain this change in population trend that has realized increasing population of the elderly (Elliott and Kollewe 1). A further worry is raised by the fact that a majority of the work force in some of these countries are the elderly who will soon be faced out of the labor system due to their age. Another cause of this trend is the change in social views that led to reduced birth rates in these countries in the past years (Greenberg 1). An almost similar trend in demography is exhibited in other continents. A case study of the demographic trend in Asian countries indicates a similarity to the trend observed in the western countries. The recent earthquake in Japan sent an indicator of the country’s population trend as reported statistics indicated that a majority of the victims of the calamity were the elderly. Either list of the survivors or the missing people in the Japanese earthquake were significantly dominated by the elderly age group. In the 31st march, 2011 article titled â€Å"Asia braces for its date with demographic destiny†, Wheatley Alan pointed out that the most important s tep for Japan in its restructuring agenda should be â€Å"solving the issue ageing society with a low birth rate† (Wheatley 1). According to Alan, Japan is the leading among the ageing nations with a record of thirty per cent of its population being more than sixty years of age as at the year 2010. With its trend, the percentage composition of the Japanese population by the elderly, of more than sixty years of age, is projected to hit thirty seven percent by the year twenty thirty. Close to the Japanese demographic trend is that of South Korea which is projected to have thirty two percent of the population as the elderly (Wheatley 1). China is also reported to exhibit increasing trend in the ageing population. It is estimated that by the year 2015, Chinese elderly population shall have grown from its 12 percent in the year 2010 up to 16 percent (Tsuruoka 1). The changing population trend has been caused by a number of factors such as improved health standards that resulted in higher life expectancy among others. In china for example, the trend is majorly attributed to the one child policy that was established in the earlier years of 1980s. The policy which was harshly enforced by the government ensured reduced birth rate. At the same time, life expectancy increased from previous forty two years and thirty nine years for women and men respectively in the middle of twentieth century to seventy one years and sixty eight years respectively at the close of the twentieth century (Columbia 1).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Current issues in global business: effects of population trends and the over aging of many western countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Effects of the Population Trend in the Western Countries The population trend and the aging factor evidenced in the above mentioned countries all aspects of life and social economic planning. As Bloch Brian reported, these demographic trends have implied effects in business sector of economies. One of the effects of this demographic change is on investment and pension schemes. The social nature of the demographic structure is expected to play an important role in the economic effects of the demographic changes. â€Å"Baby boomers†, reaching retirement age are the key players and the major asset owners in the global economy and they will move their assets in their old age. The worst problem is the spending younger generation who are seen as not keen on savings. The effect of the situation will be a flooded market for assets with no buyers leading to their loss of value. This claim of negative economic effect of demographic changes is however refuted by views that the relationship between the population trend and the economies is not significantly correlated. It is further argued that the demographic factors could have been factored in the current stock prices besides the global investments acro ss borders into the western economies (Bloch 1). The change in population trend also has a significant effect in the labor market. The facing out of the ageing generation who are also the main suppliers of labor force in some countries is expected to result in scarcity in human resource in these countries. The German government through its labor minister confers that the issue of expected labor shortage is real and measures are being considered to import labor force in the future years. This leads to the social impacts of immigration that will witness social interactions of a variety of races and nationalities that will be imported into these western economies (Larry and Kollewe 1). The trend and structure of the western population also have effects in the country’s politics. A survey conducted in Britain indicated that the age factor significantly affected political views. It was noted that a larger percentage of the older people are aligned to conservative views while the y outh are significantly not interested in politics and a majority of them don’t vote. The older generation which is increasing in population is also the most financially stable and their alignment to a political party would influence politics in terms of campaign funding during elections. The political effects of the demographic structure are actually significant globally (McLean and McMillan 6).Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One of the effects of the Asian aging population is the high cost of sustaining the social welfare of the elderly. This is specifically so as the elderly needs expenditure on them while their contribution to the economy is either minimal or zero. Another significant effect of the aging population is the reduced labor force into the economy. With a large percentage of the population aging, the active number in terms of human resource supply is on the decrease. This phenomenon has been identified as a threat that can â€Å"impede economic development by reducing the size of productive ages† (Hermalin 6). Conclusion The population trend in America and the European countries has been changing over time with the population of the elderly increasing while that of the younger people is on the decrease. The trend is caused by reduced birth rates and increased health facilities that have increased the life expectancy in the countries. The demographic change however has effects in econ omic, social and political aspects which will be more significant in future if the population trend and the ageing of the western countries continue in the same direction. Similarly, the trend is realized in the Asian countries. The population of the elderly is increasing while that of the youth is on the decline. There also therefore exists a consistently predictable crisis in the future economic and social status in Asia. Necessary measures and policies should therefore be taken to ensure that the threat that the demographic trend is posing is countered before it explodes into a global crisis. Bloch, Brian. Demographic Trends and the Implications for Investment. Demographic Trends, 2011. Web. investopedia.com/articles/pf/06/demographictrends.asp?partner=sfgate Catholic. U.S. life expectancy rises, while death rate falls. Catholic, 2011. Web. catholic.org/health/story.php?id=40741 Columbia. Issues and trend in china’s demographic history. Columbia, 2009. Web. http://afe.eas ia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm Elliott, Larry Kollewe, Julian. Germany faces up to problem of ageing workforce. Gurdian, 2011. Web. guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/17/new-europe-germany-retirement-pensions-exports Greenberg, Moe. Considerations for investigation of the elderly victim. Policeone, 2011. Web. policeone.com/investigations/articles/3439670-Considerations-for-investigations-concerning-the-elderly-victim/ Hermalin, Albert. The well-being of the elderly in Asia: a four-country comparative study. New York,NY: University of Michigan Press, 2002. Print. Lindberg, Joseph. Census 2010: Rice county cities boom at expense of townships. North Field, 2011. Web. northfieldnews.com/content/census-2010-rice-county-cities-boom-expense-townships McLean, Iain and McMillan, Alistair. The concise Oxford dictionary of politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. Tsuruoka, Doug. Aging population helps lift china biologic products. Investor, 2011. Web.: in vestors.com/NewsAndAnalysis/Article/567584/201103301751/Plasma-Firms-Prospects-Lifted-By-Aging-China-Population.htm Wheatley, Alan. Asia braces for its date with demographic destiny. Gulf News, 2011. Web. http://gulfnews.com/business/features/asia-braces-for-its-date-with-demographic-destiny-1.785272

How Bills Become Laws in the US Congress

How Bills Become Laws in the US Congress Article I, Section 1 of the United States Constitution grants all legislative- bill making- powers to the U.S. Congress, made up of a Senate and a House of Representatives. In addition to its legislative powers, the Senate has the power to â€Å"advise and consent† in matters of treaties negotiated with foreign nations and nominations to non-elected federal offices made by the President of the United States. Congress also has the legislative power to amend the Constitution, declare war, and to approve all matters concerning the federal government’s expenditures and operating budget. Finally, under the Necessary and Proper and Commerce Clauses of Section 8 of the Constitution, Congress exercises powers not explicitly enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution. Under these so-called â€Å"implied powers,† Congress is allowed, â€Å"To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by th is Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.† Through these constitutionally-granted powers, Congress considers thousands of bills each session. Yet, only a small percentage of them will ever reach the top of the presidents desk for final approval or ​veto. Along their way to the White House, bills traverse a maze of committees and subcommittees, debates, and amendments in both chambers of Congress. The following is a simple explanation of the process required for a bill to become a law. For a complete explanation, see... How Our Laws Are Made (Library of Congress) Revised and Updated by Charles W. Johnson, Parliamentarian, United States House of Representatives. Step 1: Introduction Only a member of Congress (House or Senate) can introduce the bill for consideration. The Representative or Senator who introduces the bill becomes its sponsor. Other legislators who support the bill or work on its preparation can ask to be listed as co-sponsors. Important bills usually have several co-sponsors. Four basic types of legislation, all commonly referred to as bills or measures are considered by Congress: Bills, Simple Resolutions, Joint Resolutions, and Concurrent Resolutions. A bill or resolution has officially been introduced when it has been assigned a number (H.R. # for House Bills or S. # for Senate Bills) and printed in the Congressional Record by the Government Printing Office. Step 2: Committee Consideration All bills and resolutions are referred to one or more House or Senate committees according to their specific rules. Step 3: Committee Action The committee considers the bill in detail. For example, the powerful House Ways and Means Committee and Senate Appropriations Committee will consider a bills potential impact on the Federal Budget. If the committee approves the bill, it moves on in the legislative process. Committees reject bills by simply not acting on them. Bills that fail to get committee action are said to have died in committee, as many do. Step 4: Subcommittee Review The committee sends some bills to a subcommittee for further study and public hearings. Just about anyone can present testimony at these hearings. Government officials, industry experts, the public, anyone with an interest in the bill can give testimony either in person or in writing. Notice of these hearings, as well as instructions for presenting testimony, is officially published in the Federal Register. Step 5: Mark Up If the subcommittee decides to report (recommend) a bill back to the full committee for approval, they may first make changes and amendments to it. This process is called Mark Up. If the subcommittee votes not to report a bill to the full committee, the bill dies right there. Step 6: Committee Action Reporting a Bill The full committee now reviews the deliberations and recommendations of the subcommittee. The committee may now conduct further review, hold more public hearings, or simply vote on the report from the subcommittee. If the bill is to go forward, the full committee prepares and votes on its final recommendations to the House or Senate. Once a bill has successfully passed this stage it is said to have been ordered reported or simply reported. Step 7: Publication of Committee Report Once a bill has been reported (See Step 6:) a report about the bill is written and published. The report will include the purpose of the bill, its impact on existing laws, budgetary considerations, and any new taxes or tax increases that will be required by the bill. The report also typically contains transcripts from public hearings on the bill, as well as the opinions of the committee for and against the proposed bill. Step 8: Floor Action Legislative Calendar The bill will now be placed on the legislative calendar of the House or Senate and scheduled (in chronological order) for floor action or debate before the full membership. The House has several legislative calendars. The Speaker of the House and House Majority Leader decide the order in which reported bills will be debated. The Senate, having only 100 members and considering fewer bills, has only one legislative calendar. Step 9: Debate Debate for and against the bill proceeds before the full House and Senate according to strict rules of consideration and debate. Step 10: Voting Once debate has ended and any amendments to the bill have been approved, the full membership will vote for or against the bill. Methods of voting allow for a voice vote or a roll-call vote. Step 11: Bill Referred to Other Chamber Bills approved by one chamber of Congress (House or Senate) are now sent to the other chamber where they will follow pretty much the same track of committee to debate to vote. The other chamber may approve, reject, ignore, or amend the bill. Step 12: Conference Committee If the second chamber to consider a bill changes it significantly, a conference committee made up of members of both chambers will be formed. The conference committee works to reconcile differences between the Senate and House versions of the bill. If the committee cannot agree, the bill simply dies. If the committee does agree on a compromise version of the bill, they prepare a report detailing the changes they have proposed. Both the House and Senate must approve the report of the conference committee or the bill will be sent back to them for further work. Step 13: Final Action - Enrollment Once both the House and Senate have approved the bill in identical form, it becomes Enrolled and sent to the President of the United States. The President may sign the bill into law. The President can also take no action on the bill for ten days while Congress is in session and the bill will automatically become law. If the President is opposed to the bill, he can veto it. If he takes no action on the bill for ten days after Congress has adjourned their second session, the bill dies. This action is called a pocket veto. Step 14: Overriding the Veto Congress can attempt to override a presidential veto of a bill and force it into law, but doing so requires a 2/3 vote by a quorum of members in both the House and Senate.  Under Article I, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution, overriding a presidential veto requires both the House and Senate to approve the override measure by two-thirds,​ a  supermajority vote of the members present. Assuming that all 100 members of the Senate and all 435 members of the House are present for the vote, the override measure would need 67 votes in the Senate and 218 votes in the House.

The Effects of Global Warming on Polar Bears Research Paper

The Effects of Global Warming on Polar Bears - Research Paper Example Despite ongoing activism this decrease in numbers still continues up to the present day. Indeed, it is a frightening possibility that soon, polar bears will be just parts of history and will become another name on the list of extinct animals. The decline in Polar Bear population is due to many harsh realities in today’s world. With not only traditional adversaries in the wild to contend with, the additional factors of climate and the encroachment of man begin to play a big factor in the Polar Bear saga. Chief among the causes of the polar bear’s steep mortality rate is hunting by humans (Schliebe et al. 34). Another cruel by-product of the influence of man is the exposure of the bears to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP), highly toxic chemicals. The high levels of accumulation of POP compounds cause impacts to the polar bear’s nervous system, reproduction, and even their immunity (IUCN Red List 1). This man made problem has begun to substantially threaten the health and well-being of the animals. Taken together, these problems alone would be hard for any species to face. However, overshadowing other issues is the advancing argument that the biggest threat to the existence of polar bears is the phenomenon of global warming. The continuous and intensifying climate changes have already made impacts on the polar bears’ sea – ice habitat. With entire shelves falling prey to the cracking and once mighty ice floes reduced to a mere shade of their former selves the ability to deny that the polar caps are warming is nearly impossible to dispute. As a result, their ice covered habitat has been disrupted in a complete and fundamental manner. With even the very fabric of their existence shifting under their feet, their instincts hold little recourse. This deeply affects their access to prey and den areas. It is a very strong position to state that the effects of global warming are seen to be critical to the polar bear’s extinction (IUCN Red List 1). This research will explore the possible effects of global warming on polar bears. The issue i s in need of special attention because the likelihood of polar bear’s extinction is a very important environmental concern. With the continuous climate changes, and the human population stuck in perpetual deadlock, affecting the habitat of polar bears, it is very likely that our environment will lose another biological component. This research paper will assess how the impacts of global warming are contributing to the likelihood of polar bear’s extinction. In order to gain a full understanding of the effects of global warming on polar bears, this paper will focus on three areas of literature. First, the study looks at the area that attempts to comprehend and illustrate that the polar bears are the bears of the sea. Second, the paper will examine the literature that discusses the effects of global warming on the earth in general. Third, the research will delve into the effects of global warming on polar bears specifically. By taking the time to examine all of these basi c facets, the picture of the plight of the Polar Bear begins to come into focus. First, we start by learning about the polar bear. Long regarded as the largest terrestrial carnivore in the whole world (World Life Fund for Nature’s Status Report), the bear has few natural enemies. According to Norris et al, its scientific name is Ursus maritmus (8) was

E-commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

E-commerce - Essay Example The increasing online shopping preference of the consumers is equally gaining momentum especially among the young generation (Information Resources Management Association & Khosrow-Pour, 2002). The integral aspect of globalization and online marketing and sales overrides the competitive agenda for companies. The creation of websites for enquiries and transactions which is highlighted in the paper makes the work captivating and consistent with observed social changes. The author also points out the effectiveness of web-based consumer interaction with the organization (In Lee & IGI Global, 2014). In fact the idea of increased confidence to make enquiries has significantly boosted sales for companies. Besides, E-commerce is portrayed as a tool of customer feedback mechanism on their areas of dissatisfaction. The efficiency of consumer choice platform on websites has offered consumers space, time and varieties to choose from. This underscores the benefits of E-commerce to the companies and consumers (Cheeseman & Cheeseman, 2003). Through E-commerce, consumers are accessible to custom made product options. This has blended well with the current generation and offers a smooth transition for the older generation. The discussion is generally exhaustive in terms of addressing the concepts and applications that surround

Orphaned Adolescents In Botswana

Orphaned Adolescents In Botswana Definition of an orphan is different from country to country, but all in all, an orphan is a child who does not have parents. UNICEF and UNASAIDS define an orphan as a child that has lost one parent; maternal orphan has lost his/her mother, paternal orphan is a child whose father has died and double orphan has lost both parents. In Botswana, orphan refers to a child below 18years who has lost one (single parent) or two (married couples) biological or adoptive parents. Parental deaths from all causes have left 143 million orphan children and youth across countries in sub-Saharan, Asia and Latin America, including 79 million ages 12 through 17years, (Osborn, 2007). Many countries try to address the challenges that this children faces by providing material support such as food, security, shelter and free education but they overlook the psychological, and emotional support and sexual and reproductive support that this children could be getting from their parents, therefore, these childre n become vulnerable to all kinds of delinquencies such as premarital sex, drug and alcohol abuse. ORPHANS, SPECIAL GROUP Orphans are special population, they do not have parents who raise them as compared to non orphaned children; they need special kind of care in order to help them go through grieving and meet all the developmental stages so they can become good adults in future. Improper development and upbringing make them vulnerable. There are many factors that make them vulnerable; firstly, growing up without parental care and love deprives children off a family support system. Family members rely on family system (comprising of; affection, self esteem spiritual, economics, daily care, socialization, recreation and education to meet their individual and collective needs (Turnbull and Turnbull, 2001). Parents, especially, have an important role to support intellectually, emotionally and self esteem needs of their children (Maxwell, 1998). Therefore adolescent orphans are devoid of the parental support and care which help them to develop a positive concept of who they are. They are also devoid of th e self care instruction, which helps to prepare them for success in adult life. Magnitude and Description of the Problem There are many factors that lead to children to be orphaned, but HIV/AIDS is taking the lead. Other factors are road traffic accidents, diseases, financial constraints (for abandoned children), teenage pregnancy and suicide. Brink (2004) reports that the global number of children orphaned to HIV and AIDS increased from 11.5 million in 2001 to 15 million in 2003, the majority of the orphans being in Africa. Variations in Africa have also been noted (UNAIDS, 2006), with Southern Africa being the most affected. There are approximately 111,812 orphans in Botswana, representing approximately 15.2 percent of the children below the age of 18 years (Botswana child monitor, 2005). Over one half of the orphans are adolescents (64% as shown in the pie chart) (Botswana child monitor, 2005). The Botswana child monitor statistics continue to reveal that: 77% of all orphans in Botswana lost at least one of their parents because of AIDS; 87% of the orphans still have one parent alive but 34% of them live with grandparents, 11% live with other relatives; almost 56% of orphans live with heads of households who are not economically active and 44% of orphans live with those economically active but the majority of these are employed in low-paying jobs. CHALLENGES FACED BY ADOLESCENT ORPHANS Challenges on the General Well Being Adolescent orphans come across many life rivalries that challenge them to progress in life as compared to un-orphaned children. In cases where the orphaned child does not have even a guardian or family member to give care, his/her needs are not met due to lack of funding and sub-standard conditions (Grey, 2010). These challenges affect their physical, behavioral, social, mental and intellectual wellbeing, (Grey, 2010). Socially, orphans have problems in developing proper relationships with peers and yet display indiscriminate friendliness in an effort to reach to others. This is where attachment theory comes in; this is the theory that describes the dynamic of long term relationships between humans especially as in family and long term friends (Bowlby, 1969). Infants need to develop a relationship with at least one primary care giver for social and emotional development to occur normally and that further relationships build on the patterns developed in the first relationship. Orphans did not have chance to have relationship with his/her parents. This impedes an orphans ability to form genuine attachments. Challenges Due to Improper Family Structure Sometimes orphans are abused (sexually, emotionally and financially) by their guardian, step parent or distant relative, and then adolescent, whom is in most of the cases the eldest, will choose to take care of the siblings. She/he will become a parent, a care giver and a student at the same time. She will have to shift from being dependent upon parents to becoming responsible and providing for the family. The quest for stability and security can result in potentially exploitative sexual behavior with older partners (sugar daddies and mummies), young single mother hood and HIV infection. This is supported by Tshweneyagae, Wright and Hoffmann, (2009); orphaned adolescent are vulnerable to HIV infection because they are more amenable to multiple partners as a means of survival for emotional and financial support. Some, more-especially male adolescent, would join the growing ranks of street children who soon become professional beggars, glue sniffers and criminals. This will end up affe cting their academic performance. Orphaned adolescent are at a critical developmental stage formulated by Erikson 1968; identity versus confusion. Erikson defines identity as a persons stable, coherent and integrated sense of self. That is who he/she is and what he/she stands for as a member of society. Healthy identity seems to correlate to the establishment of healthy relationship between parents and their children which allows for individual freedom, (Erikson 1968). The family can grant autonomy or feedback processes to either encourage or discourage individuality and innovations (Watson and Prostinky, 1998). As the orphaned adolescent have no parents to guide them, they end up on confusion role, not knowing who really they are and how others expect them to be. They end up being promiscuous, criminals and drug dealers in a confusion that, that would be the only way to earn finance. There are children who grew up in poor families, but because they have access to good guidance from parents, its rear to find them ind ulging in negative things to earn money. Orphans and Education Orphans are less likely to be enrolled in schools than non-orphans (Paxson and Ableidinger, 2002). However, contrary to recent reports from World Bank and UNSAIDS, the lower school enrollment rate of orphans cannot be accounted to solely by their poverty, (Paxson and Ableidinger, 2002). Paxson and Ableidinger (2002) found out that the lower enrollment of orphans is largely accounted by the nature of the relationship between the orphans and the decision making adult in the family. Children in household headed by their grandparents and parents are more likely to attend school than those children who live with their other more distant relatives and non-relatives. This evidence support the idea that house hold decision markers allocate resources towards children with whom they have close relationships and discriminate against children whose ties are more distant (Paxson and Ableidinger, 2002). Sometimes orphans become truant because they are responsible for household chores, they are the once doing all heavy labor work such as in the fields, cattle post and general household chores whereas with the children of the household decision maker, school is their first priority. Programs Assisting Orphan Adolescents in Botswana There numbers of orphans due to HIV/AIDS increased, this called for government and other stakeholders attention. Traditionally, orphaned children in Botswana have been cared for by extended families. However, due to social and economic strain some families are no longer able because orphans increase an alarming rate. The government organizations, non government organization, volunteers and community based programmes took responsibility to take care of the orphans. Government Programmes They are 100% government owned example the national orphan programme and masiela trust fund. A National Orphan Programme was established in April 1999 to respond to the immediate needs of orphaned children, and a comprehensive policy for helping AIDS orphans was established under this programme (UNAIDS, 2006). The government currently runs a food basket scheme, where a basket of food is provided to orphaned households once a month. Orphans are also provided with school uniforms and are subsidized for transportation fees to get to school. Masiela trust fund was set up by the cabinet to be responsible for the orphans. It works closely with the ministry of local government. Its role is to raise funds which are then allocated to appropriate nongovernmental organizations and community based organizations working with orphans and vulnerable children (Dlamini, 2004). Community Based Programmes These are programmes founded by communities and churches. They are funded by local companies, local banks and the government. Examples are Bobirwa trust fund, Kgaitsadi Society and Bana Baketso orphan day care. Most of these programmes care mostly for 3-6 children. Bana Baketso orphan day care has interventions for adolescents. It is based in Molepolole. The school was established in 1998 and works closely with the Keletso counseling and testing centre and also offers spiritual and social counseling. The Bana Ba Keletso day care centre is attended by 334 registered orphans and vulnerable children, ranging in age from 2-18years (Dlamini, 2004). Schooling children (7-18years) are collected after school to attend the centre. They receive a meal and participate in various activities with care givers including: Help with home work; Bereavement and trauma counseling support programmes to help them cope.; Music and gospel sessions to help children cope and develop their spirituality; Drama and swimming at private schools that have partnered with Day care centre; Psychological camps at various venues during holidays, which is also open to adolescents outside the centre. The focus of the camp is to integrate the children socially, to teach them survival skills and life skills to encourage positive attitudes. The camp promotes good, safe behavior to avoid the risk of HIV infection. The center provides training for income generating activities for adolescents such as leather work and art work and they are assisted finding employment. The care givers are trained in counseling and grief support. They assist the follow up of treatment of HIV/AIDS-positive children at clinics and in Gaborone where they receive their Anti Retroviral therapy treatment (Dlamini, 2004). Non-Governmental Organization Programs These are programs that are independent and funded by international companies, individuals and international governments, examples are Masitara foundation, Bill Melinda gates foundation, SOS childrens village and Mpule Kwelagobe foundations. SOS also has specific objective for adolescents. It is a Childrens Villages which helped children who are orphaned, abandoned or whose families are unable to care for them. They give these children the opportunity to build lasting relationships within an SOS  family.   Their family approach in the SOS Childrens Village is based on four principles: Each child needs a mother, Each child  grows up most naturally with brothers and sisters, Each child grows up in their own house, Each child grows up within a supportive village environment. SOS Children began working in Botswana in 1986 when we opened a community in Tlokweng (15 family houses and nursery), Another in Francistown, built in 1998 (15 family houses and an SOS and a nursery) and third village is being built at Serowe (5 family houses and a nursery) (SOS childrens villages, 2010). Children attend the local government schools, all within walking distance, and the younger ones use the SOS Nursery. There is An SOS Vocational Training Centre teaches (16years old) tailoring, welding and carpentry to give them the best possible chance of earning a living when they are ready to leave the village. Tlokweng also has a farm which provides most of the Villages food requirements as well as further vocational training opportunities (SOS Childrens villages, 2010). Another programme that is very important is BOFWA, Botswana Family Welfare Association. It was founded in September 1988. BOFWA provides information and services on Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH).   This approach appears necessary based on the current statistics of teenage pregnancy, HIV infection and AIDS cases in Botswana.   The approach specifically targets young people who are vulnerable to HIV infection due to unprotected sex which also leads to unplanned pregnancy which comes with psychological, social and physical consequences. This programme is essential for orphaned adolescents because it covers sexual and reproductive issues and orphaned adolescent are very vulnerable to such issues adopted on line: http://www.bofwa.bw/focus.html Evidenced Based Specific Interventions Related To Adolescent Orphans Rivers and Aggleton (2003) approved that globally as many as 100 million young people under the age of 18 live or work on the streets of urban areas. Many report having exchanged sex for money, goods or protection, injecting drugs and having been raped. In most cases, orphaned adolescents are the ones who are poor, have no proper parental guidance, therefore they are trapped in this bad activities. In such situations explicit intervention is needed to counterbalance the disempowering effects of community environments on susceptible groups like adolescent orphans (Msimang 2001). The following interventions can reduce risk and vulnerability: †¢ Provision of free, universal education (Loewenson, 2007): Young females with higher educational level are more likely to report practicing abstinence than those with lower educational level (koffi and kawaha, 2008). Education equips orphan adolescent with knowledge that they could be getting from their parents. Also education gives these orphans hopes that one day they will be able to support themselves, so they do not have to exploit their bodies by exchange sex for money. †¢ Support of teachers to deliver effective programs of HIV-related education, build youth awareness and challenging youth and gender stereotypes (Loewenson, 2007): Teachers have to make students understand that it is important to learn skills and behavior change in this domain as compared to other academic areas where achievement on a test may be important. Teachers can make this distinction by stating to the class why sexual education is so important for them. Stories of adolescents whose lives have been affected in negative ways by pregnancy or STDs (e.g., discussion of true stories, showing videos of true stories) can be very useful. The idea here is to encourage students to value what they are learning as a mechanism for behavior change, rather than focusing on simple knowledge acquisition and memorization. †¢ Universal access to youth friendly health services for prevention, treatment and care (Loewenson, 2007). Providing reproductive health and HIV/AIDS education and services is critical as orphans are vulnerable to risky sexual behaviors. Staff may need training in order: not to discriminate against youth; to understand that parental consent may keep youth from seeking health care; to realize that young people usually lack the means to pay for services; and to cope with youths difficulties in adhering to treatment. †¢ Social interventions to promote more open forms of communication within and between families, communities and young people (Loewenson, 2007): Supervision by people in the community and parental supervision are possible factors that may prevent risky behaviors of underserved adolescents such as orphans. Community should be more sensitive to support safer sexual behaviors, according to adolescent needs and wishes. Good relationship between care givers and appropriate attitudes of people within the community towards orphans should be encouraged. Other interventions as adopted from (Loewenson, 2007) include, law reforms and enforcement on gender violence, inheritance and sexual cleansing; legal and counseling services to victims of domestic violence; public and political leadership speaking out against harmful practices; small business loans and production inputs from state and NGOs to households to sustain production; and public works, cash transfers and income support to households caring for orphans. Chacham (2007) stresses that; supply is only one part of the picture. Demand and uptake issues need to be addressed. This implies making services acceptable and accessible to male and female youth, through entry points that young people will use before they are at risk, and preventing social stigma or victimization for use of services. Strengths of the orphanage programmes in Botswana The activities in programmes are child and adolescent focused such as counseling and recreational activities. There is evidence of youth empowerment in most centers such as camping which provide a useful opportunities for children to acquire skills from care givers (survival skills), artwork activities tailoring, welding and carpentry. Most of the programmes involve the community although there is room for extending community involvement such as funding from government. Their main goal is focused on promoting and protecting Orphaned and vulnerable Children in to better adults. Providing interaction of children with those who are not orphans by allowing non-orphan children in the SOS nursery, adolescent in government schools and camping not exclusive to orphans. Weakness/ Challenges of the Orphanage Programmes in Botswana Lack of infrastructure, in Bana ba keletso day care centre, 334 children are taken care of in 2 bed roomed rented house, during our visit, when it rains, all children overcrowd in a small house (Dlamini, 2004). Lack of finance: inadequate funding as well as the uncertainty of the available funds especially to feed the children. The government brings fixed amount not taking in to consideration price fluctuations. They are few social workers in the districts, causing delay in cases requiring their immediate attention example, children who are sexually abused. No evidence for community empowerment programmes to reduce dependence. There is no feasible orphan policy, care givers and volunteers do whatever they can lay hands on. Most of these programmes fail to address the sexual and reproductive issues that the adolescents face. CONCLUSION Young people are part of the promise for the future, the hope of a next generation. These adolescents need proper upbringing to be future leaders of the country. The programmes are really playing a good role; they are helping the innocent and vulnerable to conquer life challenges as adolescence is a critical stage of life. Its a stage where most individual life starts to turn over if they choose negative deeds and attitudes RECOMMENDATIONS The government should give these programs more resources such as land to engage in poultry and vegetable farming as well as mobile restaurants hence developing entrepreneurial skills in children at early age. This will reduce the financial problems experienced. More main power such as social workers should be available in most of the time, adolescent need more advices and professional counseling, so that the programme cannot rely only on lay counselors. Projects working with orphaned adolescents should address the developmental needs of this age group. Adolescents have particular developmental needs that can be much more challenging without parents. Programs generally are not addressing the psychosocial, sexuality and reproductive health, social support, and livelihood needs of adolescents who are orphans. In addition, programs need to realize that age and sex differences are important. Developmental needs of younger and older adolescents vary. Girls and boys may also have different needs.

Theory of Absolute Advantage

â€Å"If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, [we had] better buy it of them with some part of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage.†-Adam Smith (WN, IV.ii.12)This means that a nation produces and exports those commodities which it can produce more cheaply than other nations, and imports those which it cannot. A nation will not produce a good that is produced more expensively at home than abroad –be it â€Å"a thirtieth, or even a three hundredth part more† (WN, IV.ii.15) In economics, absolute advantage refers to the ability of a party (an individual, or firm, or country) to produce more of a good or service than competitors, using the same amount of resources.Adam Smith first described the principle of absolute advantage in the context of international trade, using labor as the only input. Since absolute advantage is determined by a simple comparison of labor productivities, it is possible for a party to have no absolute advantage in anything; in that case, according to the theory of absolute advantage, no trade will occur with the other party. It can be contrasted with the concept of comparative advantage which refers to the ability to produce a particular good at a lower opportunity cost.Origin of the theoryDuring the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dominant economic philosophy was mercantilism, which advocated severe restrictions on import and aggressive efforts to increase export. The resulting export surplus was supposed to enrich the nation through the inflow of precious metals. Adam Smith (1776), who regarded as the father of modern economics, countered mercantilist ideas in his famous book, The Wealth of Nations, by developing the concept of absolute advantage.He argued that it was impossible for all nations to become rich simultaneously by following mercantilist prescriptions because the export of one nation is another nation’s impor t. However, all nations would gain simultaneously if they practiced free trade and specialized in accordance with their absolute advantage. This international specialization of factors in production would produce increase  in world output. The theory of absolute advantage itself is normally presented with an example of two countries and two commodities (2Ãâ€"2 model). Each nation can produce one good with less expenditure of human labor than the other and thus more cheaply. As a result, each nation has an absolute advantage in the production of one good. ExampleConsider the table below, which shows that Nation A has an absolute advantage over Nation B in terms of producing sugar, while Nation B has an absolute advantage over Nation A in producing rice. If Nation A will concentrate in the production of sugar and Nation B will focus on the production of rice, the combined production of rice and sugar of both countries would be greater, and these two countries would share in this in crease from exchange, and both will benefit from the higher output of both commodities.If both nations start trading with each other, each nation will specialize in the production of the good it has an absolute advantage in and obtain the other commodity through international trade. More units of both commodities can be produced overall because the given resources are utilized more efficiently. Through trade, both nations are able to consume more units of at least one commodity. In our example above, Nation A would specialize completely in sugar and Nation B in rice.There are no further gains from international trade beside this one-off increase in the overall production and thus consumption. Nothing more happens. Though Smith successfully established the case for free trade, he did not develop the concept of  comparative advantage. Because absolute advantage is determined by a simple comparison of labor productivities, it is possible for a nation to have absolute advantage in not hing. Smith stressed the importance of division of laborSmith’s thoughts on the division of labor constitute the basis for his theory. For him, it is the division of labor that leads to â€Å"the greatest improvement in the productive powers of labor† (WN, I.i.1). As a result of a more advanced division of labor, more output can be produced with the same amount of labor. The division of labor leads to quantitative and qualitative production improvements. This means that output is increased, technological development is stimulated, and workers’ skills and productivity are enhanced. As a result, economic growth is promoted and national wealth increases. This can be summarized as â€Å"the more specialization, the more growth† (Staley 1989, 43)Criticisms on Smith’s theorySubsequent economists did not pay attention to Smith’s theory of absolute advantage. In general, it is not seen as relevant because of the predominance of the theory of compara tive advantage, which â€Å"has been the bedrock on which all subsequent developments in the theory of international trade have rested† (Maneschi 1998, 10). As a result, Smith’s theory was barely noticed and not developed any further. Nonetheless, many of today’s textbooks deal briefly with the theory of absolute advantage, which is ascribed to Smith. They portray Smith’s theory as â€Å"a stepping-stone to a more sophisticated theory† (Staley 1989, 52), namely the theory of comparative advantage that is attributed to David Ricardo.The presentation of Smith’s international trade theory in textbooks is essentially standardized and does not vary significantly. Textbooks emphasize that the theory of absolute advantage â€Å"can explain only a small part of world trade† (Salvatore 2011, 37). Thus, it is seen as a special case of the theory of comparative advantage and both theories are seen as complementary (Dieckheuer 2001, 50). Smith is often criticized for not being able to come up with the more sophisticated theory of comparative advantage (Zhang 2008, 3). In comparison to Ricardo, Smith is described as a â€Å"poor trade theorist† and his theory as a â€Å"naà ¯ve theory† (Mehmet, 1999, 47).